Kadamba (Neolamarckia cadamba)

Know about therapeutic uses, benefits and indications of Kadamba (Neolamarckia cadamba). It is also known as Anthocephalus chinensis, Burflower-Tree, Anthocephalus cadamba, Adina cordifolia and Mitragyna parviflora.

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Kadamba – A Silent Substantiation of Lord Krishna and His Beloved Radha

Introduction of Kadamba

Kadamba is the controversial plant that is tall, tropical tree widely found in Southeast Asia and India. Kadamba is the plant that belongs to the Rubiaceae family and has religious and traditional contexts. This tree is famous with the name Burflower tree due to its special spherical inflorescence that resembles a ball of golden yellow flowers. Kadamba is a highly valued tree that exhibits Pitta Shamaka properties due to Sheet virya (cold potency) and Madhura Vipaka. Kadamba tree due to its active ingredients exhibits antimicrobial, antioxidant, antidiabetic, neuroprotective, hepatoprotective variety, etc. In Nighnatus mainly three varieties of Kadamba are mentioned i.e. Dhuli, Dhara and Bhumi Kadamba. As per Ayurveda Kadamba is used in the treatment of digestive ailments, fever, inflammatory conditions, skin disorders, etc. In addition to its medicinal properties, Kadamba is considered as sacred tree in Hindu mythology and associated with Lord Krishna. This tree has fast growing nature, due to which it is valuable for timber and considered great for environmental purposes.

Controversy of Kadamba

चरक संहिता में कदम्ब और नीप दो शब्द आते हैं | सुश्रुत में इनके अतिरिक्त एक तीसरा शब्द गिरिकदम्ब भी है | एक स्थल पर कदंब और नीप एक साथ पठित है जिस से ये दोनों भिन्न वृक्ष है ये स्पष्ट होता है । प्रावृट ऋतु में इन दोनों का वर्णन ये सिद्ध कृत है कि ये दोनों प्रावृत ऋतु में पुष्पित होते है ।

निघण्टुओ में धारा कदंब आदि भेद मिलते है । धन्वंतरि निघंटु में धारा कदंब और धूलि कदंब दो भेद किए है । नीप धारा कदंब का पर्याय है । राज निघंटु में तीन भेद बताए गये है धारा कदम्ब, धूलि कदम्ब और भूमि कदम्ब । यहाँ भी धारा कदम्ब नीप का ही पर्याय है । धारा और धूलि शब्द उसके पुषाप काल को संकेत करते है । धारा कदंब बरसात शुरू होने पे पुष्पित होता है जबकि धूलि कदंब बरसात से पहले ही जब धूल उड़ती रहती है तभी पुष्पित हो जाता है । भूमि कदंब और गिरी कदंब उसका भेद है ।

वनस्पति विज्ञान की दृष्टि से कदम्ब के तीन प्रमुख भेद मिलते है:-

Anthocephalus cadamba Miq.- ये सामान्य कदम्ब है जो बरसात में फूलता है । धारा कदंब कहना इसको उच्चित होगा। राज कदंब भी यही है ।

Adina cordifolia Hook. f.- यह हल्दू या करम नाम से भी जाना जाता है । संस्कृत में ये हरिद्रु नाम से मिलता है । यह जून या जुलाई में लगभग फूलता है अत: एसे भी धारा कदंब कहना चाहिये । किंतु पूर्वुक्त से भिन्न करने के लिए ये नीप माना जाना चाहिए । धारा कदंब इसलिए दो तरह के है एक कदम्ब और दूसरा नीप ।

Mitragyna parviflora Korth. – ये मई जून में पुष्पित होता है । पुष्पकाल की दृष्टि से ये धूलि कदम्ब हो सकता है । गिरी कदम्ब, केलि कदम्ब आदि इसके ही नाम है । राज निघण्टु ने भूमि कदम्ब से संभवतः ये ही ग्रहण किया है । मथुरा से गोकुल जाने वाली सड़क पर ये ही वृक्ष मिलते है ।

यदि Mitragyna parviflora को धूलि कदम्ब मान लिया जाये और गिरी कदम्ब को अलग रखना हो तो कोई धुली कदंब की ही जाती रखी जा सकती है । २ और जातियाँ जो भारत में पायी जाती है –

Mitragyna rotundifolia ये विशेषत: आसाम में पायी जाती है ।

Mitragyna tubulosa यह केरल में होता है |

परंतु धूलि कदम्ब और गिरी कदंब को एक ही मानना चाहिए ।प्रथम संज्ञा पुष्प काल और दूसरी संज्ञा देश वाचक है । केलि कदम्ब नाम संभवतः कृष्ण लीला के आधार पर पड़ा होगा ।

भूमि कदम्ब गिरी कदंब की छोटी जाति होनी चाहिए । भूमि विशेषत: हस्व के लिये ही लगाते हैं । Mitragyna rotundifolia उपर्युक्त वृक्ष से छोटा होता है ।अत: एसे भूमि कदम्ब मान सकते है ।

There are two words Kadamba and Neep mentioned in Charak Samhita. Apart from these, there is also a third word Giri Kadamba in Sushruta Samhita. At one place Kadamba and Neep are read together, which makes it clear that these two are different trees. The description of these two in the Pravrit Ritu (A season mentioned by Acharaya Sushruta between summer and rainy season) proves that both flowers are in the Pravrit season. Distinctions like Dhara Kadamba etc. are found in Nighantu. In Dhanvantari Nighantu, two categories have been mentioned: Dhara Kadamba and Dhuli Kadamba. Neep is synonymous with Dhara Kadamba. In Raj Nighantu, three types have been mentioned: Dhara Kadamba, Dhuli Kadamba and Bhoomi Kadamba. Here also Dhara Kadamba is synonymous with Neep. The words Dhara and Dhuli indicate its flowering period. Dhara Kadamba flowers when the rains start, whereas Dust Kadamba flowers only before the rains when dust keeps blowing. Bhumi Kadamba and Giri Kadamba are its types. From the point of as per botanical science, there are three main types of Kadamba-Anthocephalus cadamba Miq. – This is the common Kadamba which blooms in the rainy season. It would be better to call it Dhara Kadamba. Raj Kadamba is also the same. Adina cordifolia Hook. f.- It is also known as Haldu or Karam. In Sanskrit it is found under the name Haridru. It flowers almost in June or July; hence it should also be called Dhara Kadamba. But to differentiate it from the above, it should be considered as Neep. Dhara Kadamba is therefore of two types, one Kadamba and the other Neep. Mitragyna parviflora Korth. – It flowers in May-June. From the point of view of the flowering period it could be Dhuli Kadamba. Giri Kadamba, Keli Kadamba etc. are its names. Raj Nighantu probably adopted this from Bhoomi Kadamba. These trees are found on the road from Mathura to Gokul. If Mitragyna parviflora is Dhuli Kadamba and Giri Kadamba is to be kept separate, then Dhuli Kadamba other species can be considered. 2 more species which are found in India are Mitragyna rotundifolia found especially in Assam. Mitragyna tubulosa found in Kerala. But Dhuli and Giri Kadamba should be considered the same. The first name i.e Dhuli Kadamba refers to the flowering period and the second name Giri Kadamba refers to the country. The name Keli Kadamba may have been based on Krishna Leela. Bhumi Kadamba should be a small species of Giri Kadamba. The word Bhumi is mainly used for small varieties. Mitragyna rotundifolia is smaller than the above-mentioned tree. Hence it can be considered as Bhoomi Kadamba.

Mitragyna Parviflora (Type of Kadamba / Girikadamba / Keli Kadamba / Dhuli Kadamba) Association with Lord Krishna and Vrindavan

In Ayurvedic Classical Literatures

In Ayurvedic classical literature, Sushruta Samhita Uttara Tantra, the Giri Kadamba is mentioned for treating children’s diseases due to Revati and Putna Greha (S. S. U. 31/ 4, S. S. U. 32/ 6) and in Ashtanga Hridya by the great Acharaya Vagbhatta it was also mentioned in Uttara Tantra (A. H. U. 2/ 46).This Girikadamba in the name of the Kadamba deeply ingrained in Indian mythology, particularly in connection with Lord Krishna and the sacred region of Vrindavana. As in that Vrindavana region we mostly find the trees of Mitragyna parviflora so from reference of Kadamba in context of Shri Krishna and Vrindavana we mainly consider Giri Kadamba from the Kadamba.

Below are the Prominent Stories and References from Various Other Literature:

The Story of Kaliya Mardana: The episode of Kaliya Mardana is one of the most iconic stories involving Lord Krishna and the Kadamba tree, described in the Bhagavata Purana (Book 10, Chapter 16). As per the Purana, the serpent Kaliya had poisoned the waters of the Yamuna River, creating terror among the people of Vrindavana. Krishna, as a young child, dived into the river and fought Kaliya. After subduing the serpent by dancing on its many hoods (Fana), Krishna emerged from the waters and rested beneath a Kadamba tree on the riverbank. This tree is said to have provided shelter and symbolized protection, standing as a silent witness to Krishna’s divine powers. The Kadamba tree (Giri Kadamba) thus became a religious tree in Vrindavana, representing Krishna’s victory over evil forces.

Krishna’s Rasleela Under the Kadamba: The most celebrated events in Krishna’s life, i.e. Ras Leela also involves the Kadamba tree. The Ras Leela is mentioned in the Bhagavata Purana, Book 10, Chapter 29- 33) refers to the divine dance performed by Lord Krishna and the Gopis (milkmaids) of Vrindavana during the full moon night. According to the Purana, Krishna played his flute (Bansuri) under the Kadamba tree, drawing the Gopis to him, where they danced in a celestial circle. The Kadamba tree became symbolic of the love and devotion that the Gopis held for Krishna. It is believed that the beautiful flowers of the Kadamba tree with sweet fragrance were Krishna’s favorites, which further deepened its association with him.

Kadamba in Mahabharata: The Mahabharata also mentions the Kadamba tree in various contexts. In the Vana Parva (Book of the Forest), there are references to the Kadamba trees in the forests that the Pandavas traveled through during their exile.

Padma Purana: The Padma Purana also mentions Kadamba tree in the context of Krishna’s divine play. It describes Vrindavana as a forest filled with Kadamba trees (Probably the Giri Kadamba), where Krishna performed many of his youthful pastimes. The Kadamba is revered as one of the trees that sanctified the region of Vrindavana with its presence.

Poet Jayadeva’s Gita Govinda: In Jayadeva’s Gita Govinda, a 12th-century Sanskrit text that celebrates the divine love between Krishna and Radha, the Kadamba tree is mentioned multiple times. Jayadeva portrays Krishna playing his flute under the Kadamba tree, with Radha and the Gopis enthralled by the music.

Kadamba in Folk Traditions and Vrindavana: Apart from classical texts, the Kadamba tree holds significance in various folk traditions of Vrindavana. It is said that the Kadamba flowers are offered to Krishna during certain rituals, especially during the monsoon season, when the tree is in full bloom.

Kadamba Tree Association with Astrology (Astro Ethnobotanical Importance)

Definition of Jyotish Shastra (Astrological science)

ज्योतिषां सूर्यादि नवग्रहाणां अश्वन्यादि सप्तविन्शति नक्षत्राणां बोधकं शास्त्रं । (नारद संहिता. विहगं दृष्टि,पृ. ९)

Astrology is known as the Sun-Earth Planet, the Ashvanyaadi Nakshatra and the periodic science of understanding comets.

अस्य शास्त्रस्य सम्बन्धो वेदाङगमिति कथ्यते ।

अभिधेयं च जगतः शुभाशुभनिरूपणं ।। (नारद संहिताण् शस्त्रोपनयन अध्यायण् १. ५)

This Shastra is related to Vedas therefore it is also known as Vedanga. Jyotishshastra is one which helps to predict favourable and unfavourable events of the world.

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As per astrology each person born on Earth belongs to any one of the 27 Nakshatra (stars) present in the universe. There are 27 stars or Nakshtra, which are correspondingly correlated to 27 trees present on Earth. This correlation of Human beings with Nakshatra and plants signifies that humans are directly related to plants. These 27 plants help to nullify the maleficent effect of different planets as per astrology. The Kadamba is one of the trees that is associated with Nakshatra, and it resembles Satabisha Nakshatra. The human being that has birth Nakshatra as Satabisha should plant Kadamba tree near their habitat which helps them to nullify various maleficent effects of Greha (planets) associated with them like depression, heart attack, laziness, mood swings and leads to great success.

Birth Star	Associated Plant	Botanical Name
Ashwini	Kuchla (Poison nut)	Strychnous nux vomica
Bharini	Amalaki (Amla)	Embilica officinalis
Krittika	Udumbara (Fig)	Ficus racemosa
Rohini	Jambu (Jamun)	Syzygium jambolanum
Mrugasira	Khadir (Catechu plant)	Acacia catechu
Arudra	Agaru (Agar wood)	Aquilaria agallocha
Punarvasu	Vanshlochan (Bamboo)	Bambusa arundinacea
Pushyami	Peepal (Ashvattha)	Ficus religiosa
Aslesha	Naagkesara	Messua ferrea
Magha	Vata	Ficus bengalensis
Pubba	Palasha	Butea monosperma
Uttara	Palaksha	Ficus infectoria
Hastha	Aamrataka	Spondias mangifera
Chitra	Bilva	Aegle marmelos
Swathi	Arjuna	Terminalia arjuna
Vishakha	Kapittha	Limonium acidissimum
Anuradha	Bakul	Mimusops elengi
Jyestha	Sarala (Pine tree)	Pinus roxburghii
Moola	Raal Dhup (Black Dammar)	Canarium strictum
Purvashada	Ashoka	Saraca asoca
Uttarashada	Kathal	Artocarpus heterophyllus
Sravana	Arka	Calotropis gigantia
Dhanistha	Shami	Acacia ferruginea
Satabhisha	Kadamba	Anthocephalus cadamba
Purvabhadra	Nimba	Azadirachta indica
Uttara Bhadra	Aamra	Mangifera indica
Revathi	Madhuka	Madhuca indica

Basonym of Kadamba

कदति हिनस्ति बद्ध कोषठताम सरत्वात इति।

Due to its Sara property, Kadamba relieves Baddha kosthta.

Synonyms of Kadamba

According to properties and action

नीप: नयति नीयते वा।

Kadamba has very good properties, so it is liked by many people.

प्रियक:- प्रीणाति इति प्रियक:।

Kadamba is a very good nutrient.

Regional Names of Kadamba

Wild Cinchona (English)
Kadamgachh (Bengali)
Kadamba (Gujarati)
Kadamba, Kadam (Hindi)
Kaduvalatige, Apattichakke (Kannada)
Katampu (Malayalam)
Kadamb, Rajakadamba (Marathi)
Kadimi Chettu (Telugu)

Regional Names of Giri Kadamba (Mitragyna parviflora)

Kaim (English)
Vitanah (Sanskrit)
Kayim, Kaddam (Hindi)
Kongu, Nayekadamba (Kannada)
Vimpu, Vimba, Sirakadambu, Kadamba, Neerkadambu, Poochakadambu, Rose kadambu, Veembu (Malayalam)
Katampai (Tamil)
Nerkadamba (Telugu)

Botanical Name

Anthocephalus cadamba Roxb., Anthocephalus cadamba Miq.

Here Anthos means flower and Cephalus means head. Means the plant having head inflorescence.

Family – Rubiaceae (Mnajistha Kula)

Ayurveda Reference for Kadamba (Anthocephalus cadamba Roxb.)

Scientific Classification of Kadamba

Kingdom	Plantae
Class	Dicotyledons
Subclass	Gamopetalae
Series	Inferae
Order	Rubiales
Family	Rubiaceae
Genus	Anthocephalus
Species	Cadamba

Scientific Classification of Giri Kadamba (Mitragyna parviflora)

Kingdom	Plantae
Phylum	Magnoliophyta
Class	Magnoliatae
Order	Rubiales
Family	Rubiaceae
Genus	Mitragyna
Species	Parviflora

Classification of Kadamba – As Per Charaka and Sushruta

Charaka: Vedana Sthapana Mahakshaya, Shukrashodhana Mahakshaya, Vamanopaga MahakshayaSushruta: Rodhradi Gana, Nyagodhradi Gana

Kadamba’s Description in Brihtrayi

Charaka	Shusruta	Vagbhata (Ashtang Hridya)
C. S. Su. 4/ 20, 47	S. S. Su. 6/ 33	A. H. Su. 10/ 32
C. S. Su. 27/ 111	S. S. Su. 38/ 13, 47	A. H. Su. 15/ 41
C. S. Vi. 8/ 151	S. S. Chi. 7/ 18	A. H. Chi. 29/ 72
C. S. Chi. 3/ 257	S. S. Chi. 25/ 17	A. H. Chi. 3/ 155
C. S. Chi. 6/ 26	S. S. Ka. 8/ 108	A. H. Chi. 11/ 29
C. S. Chi. 18/ 153	S. S. U. 51/ 39	A. H. Chi. 19/ 81
C. S. Chi. 25/ 86, 94		A. H. U. 3/ 46
C. S. Chi. 29/ 98		A. H. U. 18/ 44
C. S. Si. 6/ 65		A. H. U. 27/ 14
C. S. Si. 12/ 54

Kadamba’s Description in Brihtrayi as Kutsitamba

Vagbhata: A. H. Su. 15/ 26

Kadamba’s Description in Brihtrayi as Girikadamba

Giri Kadamba is probably a tree species known as Gurikarama among the tribal people of the Vinndhya hills in U.P. and Bihar and identified as Mitragyna parviflora Korth.

Sushruta: S. S. U. 31/ 4, S. S. U. 32/ 6

Vagbhata: A. H. U. 2/ 46

Kadamba’s Description in Brihtrayi as Kadambpushpi

According to Dalhana it is either Amabusha which is popular with the name Mundika or Bhumi Kadamba. It may indicate that Mundi and Alambusha may be two different drugs.

Sushruta: S. S. Chi. 19/ 63, S. S. U. 44/ 19

Kadamba’s Description in Brihtrayi as Neep (Controversy or Type)

Charaka: C. S. Su. 4/ 23, 27, 142, C. S. Vi. 7/ 22, C. S. Vi. 8/ 143, C. S. Sa. 8/ 59 C. S. Ka. 1/ 15, C. S. Si. 10/ 33

Sushruta: S. S. Su. 6/ 33, S. S. Su. 46/ 139, 158, s. s. Chi. 4/ 32

Vagbhata: A. H. Chi. 19/ 81, A. H. Chi. 20/ 30, A. H. Ka. 1/ 7, A. H. U. 34/ 2

Historical Background of Kadamba

External Morphology of Anthocephalus chinensis (Lamk.) A. Rich. / Anthocephalus cadamba Roxb.

Habit: Kadamba is a large deciduous tree, up to 10 meters high.

Leaves: Leaves of Kadamba are 12- 25 x 5- 10 cm. ovate or elliptic-oblong, coriaceous, acute pubscent beneath, subcordate at base, stipules, caducous, lanceolate.

Inflorescence: Inflorescence of Kadamba is a solitary terminal head.

Flowers: Flowers of Kadamba are small, pentamerous, orange, united by the confluent calyx tube. Calyx segments are oblongolate. Corola funnel-shaped on 7 mm. long. Stamens 5. Ovary 4 celled above, 2-celled below, stigma white. Pseudocarp large, fleshy.

Seeds: Seeds of Kadamba are minute, angular.

External Morphology of Anthocephalus chinensis (Lamk.) A. Rich. / Anthocephalus cadamba Roxb.

Habit: Kadamba is a large deciduous tree, up to 10 meters high.

Leaves: Leaves of Kadamba are 12- 25 x 5- 10 cm. ovate or elliptic-oblong, coriaceous, acute pubscent beneath, subcordate at base, stipules, caducous, lanceolate.
Inflorescence: Inflorescence of Kadamba is a solitary terminal head.
Flowers: Flowers of Kadamba are small, pentamerous, orange, united by the confluent calyx tube. Calyx segments are oblongolate. Corola funnel-shaped on 7 mm. long. Stamens 5. Ovary 4 celled above, 2-celled below, stigma white. Pseudocarp large, fleshy.
Seeds: Seeds of Kadamba are minute, angular.

Distribution

Plant is occurring from Himalayan terai and Nepal to Burma, and it is found in Mysore (Karnataka) and Western ghats. It is grown in Assam and Andamans islands.

Flowering and Fruiting Time

Spring, summer and rainy seasons. Flowering May- July and fruiting persisting till next year.

External Morphology of Mitragyna parviflora (Roxb.) Korth. syns. Nauclea parviflora Roxb., Stephegyne parviflora Korth.

Habit: Mitragyna parviflora is a highly endangered large, deciduous branched tree up to 18 meters high.
Leaves: Leaves of Giri Kadamba are simple, opposite, decussate, broadly ovate or sub- orbicular 5- 9 cm. long, acute or obtuse, glabrous, stipules oblong, deciduous.
Infloroscence: Dichasial cyme.
Flowers: Flowers of Giri Kadamba are bisexual, heads globose, usually solitary, creamy- white, shortly peduncled. Fruit capsules in globose heads, black, persistent.
Distribution: Mitragyna parviflora is found throughout the greater parts of India up to an altitude of 1200 meters. This tree develops best in well drained deep soil and is found scattered in deciduous forests. Mitragyna parviflora is found growing gregariously in low lying areas around banks and swamps.
Flowering and Fruiting Time: Flowering in August and fruiting in September-January.

The Useful Part of Kadamba

Twaka (Bark), Patra (Leaf), Phala (Fruit)

Varieties of Kadamba

There are different varieties of Kadamba in classical texts (nighantus).

According to Raja Nighantu

Dhara Kadamba (Its flowers bloom in monsoon)
Dhuli Kadamba (Its flowers blooms in spring)
Bhumi Kadamba (Having small flower)

According to Shaligrama Nighantu

Raja Kadamba

Dhara Kadamba

Bhu Kadamba

Important Phytoconstituent of Anthocephalus cadamba

Leaves of Kadamba yield Hentria compound and beta sitosterol.

Barkcontains Cadambine, Cadambagenic acid, Cadamine, Isocadamine, Quinovic acid, Beta sitosterol, Saponions A, B, C, & D.

Important Phytoconstituent of Mitragyna parviflora

Mitragyna parviflora contains the alkaloids lik 3- isoajmalicine, mitraphylline, isomitraphylline, rhynchophylline, isorhynchophylline, rotundifoline, dihydrocorynantheol, dihydrocorynantheol- N- oxide, akuammigine, akuammigine- N-oxide isorotundifoline, speciophylline-N-oxide, uncarine F, uncarine F-N-oxide, etc. The root bark of Mitragyna parviflora contains rhynchophyllineand isorhynchophylline.

Recent Research on Anthocephalus cadamba

Singh, Ranjan & Garg, Ajay & Kukkar, Rajiv & Kukkar, Mona & Saxena, Vaibhav & Rao, Sanjay. (2022). Botanical description, phytochemistry, traditional uses, and pharmacology of Anthocephalus cadamba: An updated review. World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences. 12. 132- 145. 10. 30574/ wjbphs. 2022. 12. 3. 0240. Background: Anthocephalus cadamba (Roxb.) Miq. is an important medicinal plant of the Rubiaceae family. It is widespread in the tropical and subtropical regions of India and the world. It became popular for the use of folklore in various illnesses, including diabetes Mellitus, diarrhea, fever, inflammation, hemophilia, cough, vomiting, wounds, ulcers, and debility, and also useful for snake bites. Results: The current review focuses on plant descriptions and ethnographic and traditional uses of Anthocephalus cadamba (Roxb.) Miq, along with the reported pharmacological activity. The main chemical composition and pharmacological aspects of Anthocephalus cadamba (Roxb.) Miq. have been thoroughly studied to reveal the unexplored ethnomedicinal uses of this plant, and researchers working on this plant may be able to gain new facts to continue further research on plants. Pharmacological aspects like Analgesic, antipyretic and anti-inflammatory, Anti-diabetic, Antidiarrhoeal, Diuretic, laxative, Anti-hepatotoxic, Hypolipidemic, Antioxidant, Antimicrobial, and wound healing, Anthelmintic potentials are evaluated by different in vitro/in vivo methods on this plant have been reported. Conclusion: Various conventional uses have been reported that require profound scientific investigation. Several pharmacological activities have been reported for the Anthocephalus cadamba. The present review intends to deliver a concise account of its ethnobotanical uses, and phytochemistry with an in-depth study of its phytoconstituents, facts, and prospects of the potential pharmacological activities of this golden plant.
Kaushik, Sudhakar & Bhatt, Bhawana. (2021). PHARMACOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES OF ANTHOCEPHALUS CADAMBA: A CONCISE REVIEW. 10. 916- 924. 10. 31032/ IJBPAS/ 2021/ 10. 3. 5402.
Das, Saumya & Shakya, Richa & Mazumder, Avijit & Bhati, Komal & Das, Manas. (2022). Evaluation of Hepatoprotective Potential of Stem Bark of Neolamarckia cadamba against Chloroform and Overdose of Iron Dextran Induced Hepatotoxicity in Experimental Swiss Albino Mice. Indian Journal of Pharmaceutical Education and Research. 56. 191- 198. 10. 5530/ ijper. 56. 1. 22.
Dolai, Narayan & Kumari, Uma & Aminul, Islam & Haldar, Pallab. (2015). Inhibitory effects of Anthocephalus cadamba stem bark fractions intercede anti-inflammatory, and carbon tetrachloride-induced hepatotoxicity in rats. Oriental Pharmacy and Experimental Medicine. 15. 10. 1007/ s13596- 015- 0182- x. Anthocephalus cadamba (Roxb.) Miq. (Rubiaceae) is commonly known as “Kadamba”, frequently found in moist deciduous evergreen forests. The present study was performed to evaluate the anti-inflammatory and hepatoprotective potential of A. cadamba fractions and the free radical scavenging properties to corroborate and establish the scientific evidence for its ethnobotanical uses. Quantification assays were determined for total phenolic and flavonoid compounds. Free radical scavenging properties were assessed by 1, 1-Diphenyl-2- picryl- hydrazyl (DPPH), nitric oxide, peroxynitrite, superoxide, and hypochlorous acid scavenging methods. Protein denaturation and human red blood cell membrane stabilization methods were performed to determine anti-inflammatory activity. Furthermore, Hepatocuretive potential was evaluated using carbon tetrachloride intoxicated (CCl4) rat’s model. The methanol fraction of A. cadamba (MEAC) was found to be the most potent free radical scavenger in all in vitro models. The higher inhibition properties of MEAC positively correlated with total phenolic (164.75 ± 3.83 mg GAE/ g) and flavonoid compounds (51.20 ± 2.15 mg QE/ g).
Mondal, Dr Sumanta & Dash, G. & A., Acharyya & H.P, Acharyya. (2009). Studies on the diuretic and laxative activity of bark extracts of Neolamarckia cadamba (Roxb.) Bosser. Drug Invention Today. 1. The diuretic and laxative activity of various extracts of the barks of Neolamarckia cadamba (Roxb.) Bosser (Family: Rubiaceae) were studied in Wistar albino rats. Furosemide (10 mg/ kg, p.o.) and agar- agar (300 mg/ kg, p.o.) were used as reference standards respectively for activity comparison. The methanol extract significantly increased the urinary output as well as urinary electrolyte concentration at the tested dosage regimen that is comparable with the reference standard except in increasing the urinary output. The chloroform extract produced significant laxative activity. The presence of different phytoconstituents in various extracts of N. cadamba may be responsible for the specific activities.
Nagakannan P, Shivasharan BD, Veerapur VP, Thippeswamy BS. Sedative and antiepileptic effects of Anthocephalus cadamba Roxb. in mice and rats. Indian J Pharmacol. 2011 Nov; 43 (6): 699- 702. doi: 10. 4103/ 0253- 7613. 89829. PMID: 22144777; PMCID: PMC- 3229788.
Hr, Ambujakshi & Antony, Silvia & Y.Kanchana, & Riddhi, Patel & Heena, Thakkar & Shyamnanda,. (2009). Analgesic activity of Anthocephalus cadamba leaf extract. Journal of Pharmacy Research. 2. The present study was designed to investigate the analgesic activity of Anathocephalus cadamba (Roxb)Miq leaf extract using an acetic acid-induced writhing test and a hot plate method. Aqueous extract of Anathocephalus cadamba leaves showed a significant reduction in the number of writhing induced by acetic acid and increased reaction time in the hot plate test.
Bachhav, Rishikesh & Buchake, V.V. & Saudagar, Ravindranath. (2009). Analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities of Anthocephalus cadamba roxb. Leaves in Wistar rats. Res J Pharm Technol. 2. 164- 167.
Veeramaneni, Alekhya & Thiyagarajan, Deepan & Sahoo, Shakti & Dhanaraju, Magharla Dasaratha. (2013). Preliminary Phytochemical Screening and Evaluation of In vitro Antioxidant Activity of Anthocephalous cadamba by Using Solvent Extracts. Eur J Biol Sci. 5. 10. 5829/ idosi. ejbs. 2013. 5. 1. 744. The present study was to estimate preliminary phytochemical evaluation and in vitro antioxidant of leaves and fruit extracts of anthocephalous cadamba by using different solvents like pet ether, ethanol, chloroform, and water. Preliminary phytochemical analysis reveals the presence of carbohydrates, tannins, saponins, flavonoids, and terpenoids. The extract was screened for its potential antioxidant activity using DPPH free radical scavenging activity. The reducing power extract was also determined ascorbic acid was used as a standard and positive control for both leaves and fruit analysis. All the analysis was made by using a UV spectrophotometer (Perkin Elmer). The ethanol leaves and fruit extract showed significantly shown DPPH (1, 1- Diphenyl- 2- picryl- hydrazyl) radical scavenging activity compared to standard antioxidants. The DPPH radical scavenging activity of the extract was increased with increasing concentration. In the DPPH free radical scavenging assay IC values of leaf and fruit extract of Anthocephalous cadamba were found to be 22 and 18 50 µg/ ml respectively. The results concluded that extracts have a potential source of antioxidants of natural origin.
Lal, Nand. (2023). Antioxidant activity of bark and leaf extracts of Anthocephalus cadamba (Roxb.) Mique using FRAP assay. Indian Journal of Biology. 10. 69- 72. 10. 21088/ ijb. 2394. 1391. 10223. 2. Phytochemicals derived from various herbs hold promise in treating oxidative stress in various diseases. This study aimed to measure the antioxidant activity of various extracts prepared from the bark and leaves of the Anthocephalus cadamba (Roxb.) Mique (Rubiaceae) plant. The Ferric reducing ability of plasma (FRAP, also Ferric ion reducing antioxidant power) assay was used to assess the oxidative potential of various extracts. The results show that methanol extracts of the bark and the leaves give higher TAC FRAP values. The results obtained have the potential for bark and leaf extracts of A. cadamba to be exploited pharmacologically in the future.
Umachigi, Sanjay. (2019). Sanjay.Prahalad Umachigi, Kumar. G. S., Jayaveera K.N., Kishore Kumar D.V., Ashok Kumar C.K., Dhanapal.R. Antimicrobial, wound Healing and Antioxidant activities of Anthocephalus Cadamba. Afr. J. Trad. CAM. 2007; 4 (4): 481 – 487. African Journal of Traditional, Complementary and Alternative Medicines. 4. 481-7. Anthocephalus cadamba (Roxb.) Miq. Syn A. chinensis (Lamk) A. Rich (Rubiaceae) is ethnomedicinally widely used in the form of paste by tribes in the western Ghats for treating skin diseases. In this context, the antimicrobial potential of A. cadamba against a wide range of microorganisms was studied. To validate the ethnotherapeutic claims of the plant in skin diseases, wound healing activity was studied, besides antioxidant activity to understand the mechanism of wound healing. The alcoholic and aqueous extract of this plant showed significant antibacterial and antifungal activity against almost all the organisms: Micrococcus luteus, Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Proteus mirabilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and four fungi Candida albicans, Trichophyton rubrum- dermatophyte fungi, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus, and Aspergillus nidulans–systemic fungi, with especially good activity against the dermatophyte (Trichophyton rubrum) and some infectious bacteria (Escherichia coli, Proteus mirabilis, and Staphylococcus aureus) with a MIC of 2.5 microg/ disc. The results show that A. cadamba extract has potent wound healing capacity as shown by the wound contraction and increased tensile strength. The results also indicated that A. cadamba extract possesses potent antioxidant activity by inhibiting lipid peroxidation and an increase in superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase activity.
Ali, Zulfiqar. (2016). Antiproliferative and Antioxidant Studies of Anthocephalus cadamba (Roxb.) Miq. Bark. Indian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. 78. 525- 531. The present study was conducted on Anthocephalus cadamba (Roxb.) Miq. Bark methanol extract to evaluate antiproliferative and antioxidant studies along with the presence of total phenolic contents. These interferences were accomplished by 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide assay, colony formation assay, radical scavenging assay (1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl and (2, 2′- azinobis (3- ethylbenzthiazoline- 6- sulfonate) and Folin- Ciocalteau reagent method. Results obtained demonstrated that A. cadamba bark methanol extract showed significant antiproliferative activity (IC50= 319± 4.98 μg/ ml) against human cervical cancer cells as compared with standard cisplatin (IC50= 5.6± 0.52 μg/ ml) drug. The high antiradical activity demonstrated by extract against 1, 1- diphenyl- 2- picrylhydrazyl and 2, 2′- azinobis (3- ethylbenzthiazoline- 6- sulfonate) free radicals were compared with standards ascorbic acid, quercetin and rutin. The high amount of total phenolic contents showed the phytochemical potency of A. cadamba. The antiproliferative activity of A. cadamba bark methanol extract may be due to induction of apoptosis which is credited to the phenolic contents. Therefore, further in-depth studies are needed to scrutinize the molecular-based mechanism involved in the antiproliferative activity of A. cadamba bark along with isolation and identification of active principles.
Gupta, Ajay & Anand, Madhu & Yadav, Shweta & Gautam, Jaiswar. (2013). Phytochemical studies and antioxidant activity of different leaf extracts of A. cadamba. International Journal of Biomedical Engineering and Technology. Anthocephalus cadamba is an anethnomedicinally suggested medicinal plant that is used in the treatments of diseases like fever, anemia, leprosy, blood & skin diseases, and for the improvement of semen quality. The present study was carried out to analyze the chemical composition of the methanolic and n-hexanic extracts of leaves of Anthocephalus cadamba by GC-MS technique. The standard methods are used for preliminary phytochemical screening of these different extracts and the antioxidant activities of these different extracts are determined by DPPH radical scavenging assay. The result shows that the methanolic extract of A. cadamba shows higher antioxidant activity as compared to the n-Hexanic extracts. The phytochemical screening and GC-MS analysis show that many useful compounds used in modern pharmacopeia are present in the leaves of A. cadamba.
Singh, Himanshu & Irchhaiya, Raghuveer & Verma, Amita & Pandey, Himanshu & Singh, Prem. (2017). Phytochemical analysis, exploration of antidiabetic and antioxidant potential of Anthocephalus cadamba (Roxb.). International Journal of Research and Development in Pharmacy and Life Sciences. 6. 2800- 2805. 10. 21276/ IJRDPL. 2278- 0238. 2017. 6 (6). 2800- 2805.
Khandelwal, Vishal & Bhatia, Ashok & Goel, Anjana. (2016). Antimicrobial and Antioxidant Efficacy of Aqueous Extract of Anthocephalus cadamba Leaves. Journal of Pure and Applied Microbiology. 10. 209-216. Hot aqueous extract (HAE) of leaves of Anthocephalus cadamba (Roxb.) Miq, Rubiaceae has been screened for antimicrobial and antioxidant activity. Leaf extract was tested against some gram-positive, gram-negative, and certain fungal strains. Leaf extract showed significant (p < .01) antibacterial and antifungal activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aureginosa and Aspergillus Niger. Ofloxacin and amphotericin-B were used as standards concerning bacteria and fungi. MIC of leaf extract was 0.039 mg/ml for S. aureus, 0.078 mg/ml for B. cereus, 0.156mg/ ml for E. coli, P. aureginosa, and A. Niger. In-vitro antioxidant activity of the extract was evaluated by 2,2-diphenylhydrazyl free radical scavenging assay. Significant (p < .01) antioxidant activity in terms of percentage inhibition of free radicals by the extract was found at 0.25 mg/ 10ml, 0.50 mg/ 10ml, and 1.0 mg/ 10ml concentrations when compared with standards (ascorbic acid and butylated hydroxyl toluene).
Umachigi, Sanjay & Kumar, Shiv & Jayaveera, K.N. & Kishore, Kumar & CK, Ashok Kumar & Dhanapal, Ramaiyan. (2007). Antimicrobial, Wound Healing and Antioxidant Activities Of Anthocephalus cadamba. African journal of traditional, complementary, and alternative medicines: AJTCAM / African Networks on Ethnomedicines. 4. 481- 7. 10. 4314/ ajtcam. v4i4. 31241. Anthocephalus cadamba (Roxb.) Miq. Syn A. chinensis (Lamk) A. Rich (Rubiaceae) is ethnomedicinally widely used in the form of paste by tribes in the western Ghats for treating skin diseases. In this context, the antimicrobial potential of A. cadamba against a wide range of microorganisms was studied. To validate the ethnotherapeutic claims of the plant in skin diseases, wound healing activity was studied, besides antioxidant activity to understand the mechanism of wound healing. The alcoholic and aqueous extract of this plant showed significant antibacterial and antifungal activity against almost all the organisms: Micrococcus luteus, Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Proteus mirabilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and four fungi
Candida albicans, Trichophyton rubrum—dermatophyte fungi, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus nidulans—systemic fungi, with especially good activity against the dermatophyte (Trichophyton rubrum) and some infectious bacteria (Escherichia coli, Proteus mirabilis, and Staphylococcus aureus) with an MIC of 2.5 μg/ disc. The results show that A. cadamba extract has potent wound healing capacity as shown by the wound contraction and increased tensile strength. The results also indicated that A. cadamba extract possesses potent antioxidant activity by inhibiting lipid peroxidation and an increase in superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase activity.
Umachigi, Sanjay & Kumar, Shiv & Jayaveera, K.N. & Kishore, Kumar & CK, Ashok Kumar & Dhanapal, Ramaiyan. (2007). Antimicrobial, Wound Healing and Antioxidant Activities of Anthocephalus cadamba. African journal of traditional, complementary, and alternative medicines: AJTCAM / African Networks on Ethnomedicines. 4. 481- 7. 10. 4314/ ajtcam. v4i4. 31241. Anthocephalus cadamba (Roxb.) Miq. Syn A. chinensis (Lamk) A. Rich (Rubiaceae) is ethnomedicinally widely used in the form of paste by tribes in the western Ghats for treating skin diseases. In this context, the antimicrobial potential of A. cadamba against a wide range of microorganisms was studied. To validate the ethno-therapeutic claims of the plant in skin diseases, wound healing activity was studied, besides antioxidant activity to understand the mechanism of wound healing. The alcoholic and aqueous extract of this plant showed significant antibacterial and antifungal activity against almost all the organisms: Micrococcus luteus, Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Proteus mirabilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and four fungi Candida albicans, Trichophyton rubrum—dermatophyte fungi, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus, and Aspergillus nidulans— systemic fungi, with especially good activity against the dermatophyte (Trichophyton rubrum) and some infectious bacteria (Escherichia coli, Proteus mirabilis and Staphylococcus aureus) with an MIC of 2.5 μg/ disc. The results show that A. cadamba extract has potent wound healing capacity as shown by the wound contraction and increased tensile strength. The results also indicated that A. cadamba extract possesses potent antioxidant activity by inhibiting lipid peroxidation and an increase in superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase activity.
Fatima, Nishat & Ahmad, Mohammad & Ansari, Jamal & Khan, Homa & Rastogi, Namrata & Srivastava, Sharad & Ahmad, Sohail & Ali, Zulfiqar. (2016). Antiproliferative and Antioxidant Studies of Anthocephalus cadamba (Roxb.) Miq. Bark. Indian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. 78. 525. 10. 4172/ pharmaceutical- sciences. 1000147. The present study was conducted on Anthocephalus cadamba (Roxb.) Miq. Bark methanol extract to evaluate antiproliferative and antioxidant studies along with the presence of total phenolic contents. These interferences were accomplished by 3- (4, 5- dimethylthiazol- 2- yl)- 2, 5- diphenyltetrazolium bromide assay, colony formation assay, radical scavenging assay (1, 1- diphenyl- 2- picrylhydrazyl and (2, 2′- azinobis (3-ethylbenzthiazoline- 6- sulfonate) and Folin- Ciocalteau reagent method. Results obtained demonstrated that A. cadamba bark methanol extract showed significant antiproliferative activity (IC50= 319± 4.98 µg/ ml) against human cervical cancer cells as compared with standard cisplatin (IC50= 5.6± 0.52 µg/ ml) drug. The high antiradical activity demonstrated by extract against 1, 1- diphenyl- 2- picrylhydrazyl and 2, 2′- azinobis (3- ethylbenzthiazoline- 6- sulfonate free radicals was compared with standards ascorbic acid, quercetin and rutin. The high amount of total phenolic contents showed the phytochemical potency of A. cadamba. The antiproliferative activity of A. cadamba bark methanol extract may be due to induction of apoptosis which is credited to the phenolic contents. Therefore, further in-depth studies are needed to scrutinize the molecular-based mechanism involved in the antiproliferative activity of A. cadamba bark along with isolation and identification of active principles.
Chandrashekar, Kuntinamadu & Prasanna, K. (2009). Antimicrobial activity of Anthocephalus cadamba Linn. J Chem Pharm Res. 1. The antimicrobial activity of the various extracts of the leaves of Anthocephalus cadamba has been studied by the agar cup plate diffusion method. Significant antibacterial and antifungal activity was shown by petroleum ether, chloroform, and acetone extracts. Introduction Anthocephalus cadamba (Roxb) Miq. Syn. Anthocephalus chinensis (Lamk) (Rubiaceae) is widely distributed throughout the greater part of India, especially at low levels in wet places. In the traditional system of medicine, warm aqueous extract of A.cadamba leaves have been used to alleviate the pain, and swelling and for cleansing and better wound healing. Recently, A.cadamba has been reported to possess wound healing, antioxidant, antimalarial and hepatoprotective activity. The present study was undertaken to screen the antibacterial activity of the leaves of Anthocephalus cadamba. Experimental Section The leaves of Anthocephalus cadamba were collected from the local areas of Mangalore district, Karnataka, India during December 2007 and were authenticated by Prof. Gopalakrishna Bhat, Department of Botony, Poorna Prajna College, Udupi.
Kumar, Vishnu & Mahdi, Farzana & Chander, Ramesh & Singh, Ranjana & Mahdi, Abbas Ali & Khanna, Ashok & Bhatt, Sanjay & Singh, Raj & Jawad, Kalbe & Kumar, Jitendra & Singh, Raj. (2010). Hypolipidemic and antioxidant activity of Anthocephalus indicus (Kadam) root extract. Indian journal of biochemistry & biophysics. 47. 104- 9. The present study was carried out to explore the anti-diabetic, anti-dyslipoproteinemic, and antioxidant activities of Anthocephalus indicus root extract in alloxan-induced (150 mg/kg body wt.) diabetic rats. A marked increase in plasma levels of glucose and lipid peroxides accompanied by an elevation in the lipids and apoprotein levels of serum very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) following a decrease in lipid and protein constituents of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) were observed. The alterations in lipoprotein patterns were associated with inhibition of lipolytic and antioxidant enzymes. Oral administration of root extract (500 mg/ kg body wt.) for 30 days in dyslipidemic animals resulted in a significant decrease in plasma glucose, total cholesterol, phospholipids, triglyceride, and lipid peroxides. The decrease of lipids and apoprotein levels of VLDL and LDL were followed by stimulation of plasma post-heparin lipolytic activity and lecithin cholesterol acyltransferase as well as hepatic superoxide dismutase and catalase activities. Lipid and apoprotein levels of HDL were also recovered partially on treatment with root extract.
Sharma, Tarubala & Khandelwal, Vishal. (2023). Phytochemical analysis, antimicrobial and antioxidant efficacy of Neolamarckia cadamba (Roxb.) fruit. Research Journal of Biotechnology. 18. 7- 15. 10. 25303/ 1807- rjbt- 07015. Neolamarckia cadamba also known as Kadamb, an important traditional medicinal plant belonging to the Rubiaceae family was utilized for treating several diseases. The present study was carried out to quantify secondary metabolites and antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of an aqueous extract (AE) of Neolamarckia cadamba fruits. Different concentrations of plant extracts (1.25, 2.5, 5.0, and 10 mg/ disc) have been screened against Gram-positive (Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus subtilis) and gram-negative (Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aureginosa) bacterial strains to detect antimicrobial activity by disc diffusion and minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) by serial dilution method. AE of N. cadamba fruits with concentrations of 5 and 10 mg/disc showed significant antibacterial activity. The MIC of fruit extract was 3.75 mg/ ml for Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aureginosa and Staphylococcus aureus and 1.875 mg/ml for Bacillus subtilis. FTIR analysis confirmed the presence of alcoholic groups, N-H bending, C-O stretching, and aromatic compounds in the extract. The fruit extract was found to exhibit significant antioxidant activity with IC50 = 1.5 mg/ ml. Quantitative phytochemical investigation showed the presence of alkaloids (52.00± 1.00 mg/g equivalent of atropine), flavonoids (110.33± 0.577 mg/ g equivalent of rutin), phenols (50.33±0.577 mg/g equivalent of gallic acid) and saponin (22.33± 0.333 mg/ g equivalent of diosgenin) contents in the extract which might be the reason for its promising antimicrobial and antioxidant potential.
Acharyya, Suman & Rathore, Devendra & Kumar, H K & Panda, N. (2011). Screening of Anthocephalus cadamba (Roxb.) Miq. Root for Antimicrobial and Anthelmintic activities. Int J Res Pharm Biomed Sci. 2. Petroleum ether (60- 80 0 C), chloroform, methanolic, and aqueous extracts of the root of Anthocephalus cadamba (Roxb.) Miq. were evaluated separately for antimicrobial and anthelmintic activities. All the extracts were tested against certain Gram-positive and Gram-negative organisms by the well diffusion method. In the methodology, azithromycin and DMSO were used as standard and control respectively. Significant antimicrobial activity was observed for both methanolic and aqueous extracts at the concentration of 20 mg/ml against all the tested organisms. Anthelmintic activity on adult Indian earthworm Pheritima posthuma using piperazine citrate as reference standard was carried out and the results indicated that the chloroform and methanolic extracts were more potent than the petroleum ether extract.
Zahan, Tasnim & Khatun, most. Lipy & Siddika, Ayesha & Nime, Md & Habib, Md & Aziz, Md & Rahman, Md & Karim, Rezaul. (2023). Evaluation of Antioxidant, Cytotoxic and Antimicrobial Potentials of Anthocephalus Cadamba (Roxb.) Leaves. 157- 163.
P, Ravi. (2022). Anti-Cancer Activity of Phytochemical Constituents of Neolamarckia Cadamba (Roxb.) Stem Bark using Molecular Docking Studies. YMER Digital. 21. 435- 450. 10. 37896/ YMER21. 07/ 34. Molecular docking studies are efficient tools to study the biopharmaceutical and pharmacokinetic parameters of drug compounds. The present study aimed to determine the anti-cancer activity of Neolamarckia Cadamba (Roxb.) stem bark extract and to perform molecular docking on selected phytocompounds. The dried bark was extracted successively by Soxhlet apparatus using n-hexane, Dichloromethane, and 80% Ethanol which was confirmed by visualization of spots on TLC using a UV chamber. The extracted compounds were subjected to an Insilico study such as molecular docking using AUTODOCK 4.2.6 on the active sites of VEGFR2, HER2 (erbB2), and EGFR Proteins. The docking results reveal among all the 3 phytoconstituents that are extracted from the Neolamarckia Cadamba bark 4-hydroxy-beta- ionone has maximum binding affinity at the active sites of HER2, VGERF2, and EGFR. The target proteins show good anti-cancer activity in response to 4-hydroxy-betaionone. Keywords- Neolamarckia Cadamba, Molecular docking, Cancer, GC- MS, In-silico analysis
Dolai, Narayan & Karmakar, Indrajit & Kumar, Ramakrishna Balasundaram Suresh & Kar, Biswakanth & Bala, Asis & Haldar, Pallab. (2012). Evaluation of antitumor activity and in vivo antioxidant status of Anthocephalus cadamba on Ehrlich ascites carcinoma treated mice. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 142. 865- 70. 10. 1016/ j. jep. 2012. 05. 050. Anthocephalus cadamba (Roxb.) Miq. (Family: Rubiaceae) is commonly known as “Kadamba” in Sanskrit and Hindi in India. Various parts of this plant have been used as folk medicine for the treatment of tumors, wound healing, and inflammation and as a hypoglycemic agent. The purpose of this investigation was to evaluate the antitumor activity and antioxidant status of defatted methanol extract of A. cadamba (MEAC) on Ehrlich ascites carcinoma (EAC) treated mice. In vitro, cytotoxicity assay has been evaluated by using the trypan blue method. The determination of in vivo antitumor activity was performed by using different EAC cells (2 × 10 (6) cells, i.p.) inoculated mice groups (n=12). The groups were treated for 9 consecutive days with MEAC at the doses of 200 and 400 mg/ kg b.w. Respectively. After 24 h of the last dose and 18 h of fasting, half of the mice were sacrificed, and the rest were kept alive for assessment of the increase in lifespan. The antitumor potential of MEAC was assessed by evaluating tumor volume, viable and nonviable tumor cell count, tumor weight, hematological parameters, and biochemical estimations. Furthermore, antioxidant parameters were assayed by estimating liver and kidney tissue enzymes. MEAC showed direct cytotoxicity on the EAC cell line in a dose-dependent manner. MEAC exhibited a significant (P< 0.01) decrease in the tumor volume, viable cell count, and tumor weight and elevated the life span of EAC tumor-bearing mice. The hematological profile, biochemical estimations, and tissue antioxidant assay were reverted to normal levels in MEAC-treated mice. Experimental results revealed that MEAC possesses potent antitumor and antioxidant properties. Further research is going on to find out the active principle(s) of MEAC for a better understanding of the mechanism of its antitumor and antioxidant activity.
Khandelwal, Vishal & Choudhary, Pradeep. (2020). ANTIOXIDANT AND ANTICANCER POTENTIAL OF Neolamarckia Cadamba (ROXB.) BARK EXTRACT. Journal of Experimental Biology and Agricultural Sciences. 8. 334- 338. 10. 18006/ 2020. 8 (3). 334. 338.
Singh, Satyajit & Ishar, Mohan Paul & Saxena, Ajit & Kaur, Arvinder. (2013). Cytotoxic effect of Anthocephalus cadamba Miq. Leaves on human cancer cell lines. Pharmacognosy Journal. 5. 127– 129. 10. 1016/ j. phage. 2013. 04. 005. IntroductionAnthocephalus cadamba Miq. (Rubiaceae) is used as folk medicine in the treatment of fever, anemia, leprosy, dysentery, blood and skin diseases. Methods Powdered leaves of A. cadamba were extracted sequentially with hexane, chloroform, ethanol, ethanol: water (50: 50) and water by maceration, and evaluated for cytotoxic potential using SRB assay against four human cancer cell lines lung (A- 549), ovary (IGR- OV- 1), prostate (PC- 3) and CNS (SF- 295). Chloroform extract exerts a potent cytotoxic effect against the human lung (A- 549), ovary (IGR- OV- 1), prostate (PC- 3), and CNS (SF- 295) cancer cell lines IC50 of 8, 57, 49 and 39 μg/ ml respectively. Ethanolic extract was found to be active only against one cell line CNS (SF- 295). The present study demonstrates the cytotoxic potential of A. cadamba leaf extract (chloroform) against different human cancer cell lines.
Mishra, Devendra & Yadav, Dinesh & Rawat, Arun & Hussain, Mohd & Khan, Mohammad & Ahamad, Tanveer. (2018). Monoterpene Indole Alkaloids from Anthocephalus cadamba Fruits Exhibiting Anticancer Activity in Human Lung Cancer Cell Line H1299. Chemistry SELECT. 3. 10. 1002/ slct. 201801475. Two new monoterpene indole alkaloids, Vincosamide‐ N‐ oxide (1) and isodihydroamino cadambine (2) along with seven known alkaloids and triterpenoids vincosamide (3), vallesiachotamine (4), iso‐vallesiachotamine (5), dihydrocadambine (6), cadambine (7), ursolic acid (8) and oleanolic acid (9) were isolated from the fruits of Anthocephalus cadamba (Roxb) Miq. (Family: Rubiaceae). The chemical structures of the isolated molecules were determined using a combination of InfraRed (IR) and one-dimensional (1D) and two-dimensional (2D) Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and High Resolution‐Electronspray Ionisation Mass Spectrometry (HR‐ ESIMS). The molecules were evaluated for their in‐vitro antiproliferative activity against human lung cancer cell line H1299. Cytotoxic profile was studied in mouse macrophage RAW 264.7 cell line and induction of apoptosis in MCF‐7 cells. Compounds 4 and 5 were found to exhibit potent anticancer activity with IC50 values of 4.24 and 3.79 μM respectively. Both compounds demonstrated significant fragmentation in the chromatin within the nucleus cells as a result of apoptosis. In addition, none of the purified compounds showed any toxic effect on normal cells.
Ansari, Jamal & Ahmad, Mohammad & Fatima, Nishat & Azad, Iqbal & Mahdi, Abbas Ali & SATYANARAYANA, G N V & Ahmad, Naseem. (2022). Chemical characterization, in-silico evaluation, and molecular docking analysis of antiproliferative compounds isolated from the bark of Anthocephalus cadamba Miq. Anti-Cancer Agents in Medicinal Chemistry. 22. 10. 2174/ 187152062- 266622- 0204123348. The present study aimed to isolate and characterize chemical compounds from Anthocephalus cadamba Miq. Bark and evaluate their anticancer activity in silico, molecular docking, and in vitro studies. Anthocephalus cadamba is a traditionally used Indian medicinal plant. The anticancer and phytochemical investigations of this plant bark remain unexplored except only with few studies. The objective of the study was to evaluate the antiproliferative activity of extract and fractions against breast cancer and prostate cancer cell lines. Isolation and characterization of active compounds from bio-active guided fractions. Evaluation of anticancer activity of isolated compounds against breast and prostate cancer cell lines. In addition to in silico and molecular docking interactions of isolated compounds with VEGFR2 and PDGFRα target proteins. The compounds were isolated and purified with the help of repeated column chromatography, and spectral techniques 1D, 2D NMR, and GC-MS/MS were used to identify and elucidate the structure of compounds. Moreover, prediction of activity spectra for substances, physiochemical properties, bioactivity radar prediction, bioactivity score, natural-product likeness, ADME, and toxicity parameters of isolated compounds (AC- 1 to AC- 4) was performed through various in-silico databases and servers. To evaluate the docking interaction profile and binding energies of compounds, three docking tools were utilized AutoDock, AutoDock Vina, and iGEMDOCK, against two targets VEGFR2 and PDGFRα. MD simulation was performed through ligand and receptor molecular dynamic server (LARMD). Results: The study has shown that the A. cadamba bark chloroform fraction demonstrated a significant inhibitory effect against MDA- MB- 231, MCF- 7, and PC- 3 cells in a dose-time-dependent manner. The bioassay-guided isolation afforded four molecules AC- 1 to AC- 4 from the chloroform fraction. Moreover, the GC- MS/ MS profiling identified fourteen new molecules that were not reported earlier from A. cadamba. The in-silico study showed that the isolated compounds (AC- 1 to AC-4) obey Lipinski’s rule and had good oral bioavailability. While compound AC-4 had positive bioactivity scores except for kinase inhibitor activity. The ADMET profiling revealed that AC-4 was non-toxic and easily absorbed in the human intestine, and transportable in the blood-brain barrier when compared with AC-1, AC-2, AC-3, and standard drug doxorubicin. Molecular docking and MD simulation assessment also signified AC-4 anticancer activity with dual inhibitory action against the target proteins VEGFR2 and PDGFRα amongst the studied compounds. The in vitro cell viability assay of isolated compounds demonstrated that AC-1 showed IC50 (μg/ mL) value of 34.96 ± 3.91, 47.76± 3.80 69.1± 4.96, AC-2; 68.26± 4.22, 54.03± 5.14, >100, AC-3; 35.34± 4.14, 51.5± 51.5, 70.8± 5.25 and AC- 4; 44.2± 3.57, 24.2± 2.67, 51.2± 2.54 for MDA- MB- 231, MCF- 7 and PC- 3 cancer cell lines, respectively and compared with standard drug doxorubicin. Moreover, fluorescence microscopy confirmed the apoptogenic properties of compounds. We also found that AC-4 exhibited significant intracellular ROS production in breast cancer cells which induces apoptosis and eventually cell death. In conclusion, A. cadamba afforded four pure molecules AC- 1 to AC- 4 with the identification of fourteen new compounds. The entire in-silico studies concluded that the AC- 4 compound had better oral bioavailability, bioactivity score, and ADMET profile amongst studied molecules. Molecular docking analysis and MD simulation also supported AC- 4 dual inhibitory action against both VEGFR2 and PDGFRα receptors. Moreover, the isolated molecules AC- 1, AC- 2, AC- 3, and AC- 4 were found to be active against MDA- MB- 231, MCF- 7, and PC- 3 cancer cells. The molecule AC- 4 induces ROS-mediated apoptosis in breast cancer cells. The anticancer inhibitory potentiality of AC- 4 is directed to its molecular stereochemistry which specifically binds to the target proteins of breast cancer cells with no toxicological effect. Therefore, AC-4 is suggested to be an effective aspirant for novel drug design and discovery.

Recent Research on Mitragyna parviflora

Saneja, Ankit & Kaushik, Dhirender & Khokra, Sukhbir & Kaushik, Pawan & Sharma, Chetan & Aneja, K. (2009). Evaluation of activities of Mitragyna parvifolia fruit extract. Ethanolic extract of the Mitragyna parvifolia was evaluated for anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antimicrobial activities. The extract showed very significant analgesic and anti-inflammatory potential. The analgesic activity was significant at the dose of 500 mg/ kg (P< 0.01) while the doses of 250 and 100 mg/ kg showed only promising results. The extract at the dose of 500 mg/ Kg showed a very high % inhibition in edema volume comparable to the standard drug Diclofenac sodium (50 mg/ Kg, i.p.). The plant extract did not exhibit any anti-bacterial potential against Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa.
Kaushik, Dhirender & Kaushik, Pawan & Sneja, Ankit & Khokra, Sukhbir & Yadav, Vijay. (2016). Antioxidant and Anti-inflammatory activities of Mitragyna parvifolia leaves extract. Der Pharmacia Lettre. 1. 75- 82.
Saleh, Siti & Hazizul Hasan, Mizaton & Said, Ikram & Adenan, Mohd & Adam, Aishah. (2012). Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antinociceptive activities of Mitragyna speciosa and Erythroxylum cuneatum. SHUSER 2012 – 2012 IEEE Symposium on Humanities, Science, and Engineering Research. 1087- 1091. 10. 1109/ SHUSER. 2012. 6268787. This study was conducted to determine the potential of both Mitragyna speciosa (MS) and Erythroxylum cuneatum (EC) aqueous leaf extracts as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antinociceptive agents. MS has been used traditionally by local folks to treat diarrhea, reduce cough, alleviate pain, and combat fatigue. Meanwhile, EC was used as fish poison and tonic for miscarriage. MS and EC aqueous leaf extracts have the capability to chelate iron and have potent anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive activities but were not effectively inhibiting the production of uric acid. Both extracts (50, 100, 200, and 400 mg/ kg, p.o) were given to rodents in carrageenan-induced rat paw edema model and acetic acid-induced writhing in mice models to study their anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive activities, respectively.
Ghatak, Arindam & Bhembre, Nishita & Kamath, Anisha & Mehta, Sneha & Mendonca, Michelle & Dsouza, Azriel & Chaturvedi, Palak & DESAI, NEETIN. (2014). ANTIPROLIFERATIVE, ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITY, AND TOTAL PHENOLIC CONTENT OF MITRAGYNA PARVIFOLIA (ROXB.) KORTH. International Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences. 6. 632-637. Objective: In the present study bark and leaves of Mitragyna parvifolia(Roxb.) Korthwere evaluated for total phenolic content, total flavonoid content, antioxidant potential, lipid peroxidation, and antiproliferative effect on HeLa cell lines. Dried bark and leaves were suspended in five different solvent systems viz, distilled water, methanol, acetone, ethyl acetate, and hexane. Total phenolic content was estimated using Folin–Ciocalteau reagent and phenolic profiling by using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Antioxidant potential and flavonoid estimation were investigated using DPPHradical scavenging activity and aluminum chloride method respectively. Further lipid peroxidation and antiproliferative effect were observed using TBARS and MTT assay, followed by cell morphology using Giemsa and Acridine orange staining. The acetone extract of bark (57.08 ± 6.16 mg/ mL) and leaf (60.1 ± 3.74 mg/ mL) exhibited the highest phenolic content. Distilled water extracts of bark (94 ± 0.05%) and leaf (95.63 ± 0.34 %) showed maximum antioxidant potential. Percent protection was observed maximum in acetone extracts of bark (19.04± 0.02 %) and leaf (25.11± 0.09 %). Total flavonoid content was found maximum in distilled water leaf extracts (0.869± 0.001 mg/ mL). Acetone extracts showed a high cytotoxic effect on HeLa cells compared to other extracts with very minimal or no cytotoxicity contributed by the vehicle (acetone) itself in comparison to the positive control of 5 % ricin. Acetone extracts exhibited the highest cytotoxic effect on HeLa cells compared to other extracts. These results also indicated that acetone extract has the highest phenolic content and percent protection in lipid peroxidation. Thus, Mitragyna parvifolia’s acetone extracts can be attributed to one of the several bioactive compounds that can be further studied in detail.
GHATAK, ARINDAM & Bhembre, Nishita & KAMATH, ANISHA & Mehta, Sneha & MENDONCA, MICHELLE & D’SOUZA, AZRIEL & DESAI, NEETIN. (2014). Antiproliferative, antioxidant activity, and total phenolic content of Mitragyna parvifolia (Roxb.) Korth. International Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences. 6. 632- 637. Objective: In the present study bark and leaves of Mitragyna parvifolia(Roxb.) Korth were evaluated for total phenolic content, total flavonoid content, antioxidant potential, lipid peroxidation, and antiproliferative effect on HeLa cell lines. Dried bark and leaves were suspended in five different solvent systems viz; distilled water, methanol, acetone, ethyl acetate, and hexane. Total phenolic content was estimated using theolin–Ciocalteau reagent and phenolic profiling by using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Antioxidant potential and flavonoid estimation were investigated using DPPHradical scavenging activity and the aluminum chloride method respectively. Further lipid peroxidation and antiproliferative effect were observed using TBARS and MTT assay, followed by cell morphology using Giemsa and Acridine orange staining. The acetone extract of bark (57.08 ± 6.16 mg/ mL) and leaf (60.1 ± 3.74 mg/ mL) exhibited the highest phenolic content. Distilled water extracts of bark (94 ± 0.05%) and leaf (95.63 ± 0.34%) showed maximum antioxidant potential. Percent protection was observed maximum in acetone extracts of bark (19.04± 0.02 %) and leaf (25.11± 0.09 %). Total flavonoid content was found maximum in distilled water leaf extracts (0.869± 0.001 mg/ mL). Acetone extracts showed a high cytotoxic effect on HeLa cells compared to other extracts with very minimal or no cytotoxicity contributed by the vehicle (acetone) itself in comparison to the positive control of 5% ricin. Acetone extracts exhibited the highest cytotoxic effect on HeLa cells compared to other extracts. These results also indicated that acetone extract has the highest phenolic content and percent protection in lipid peroxidation. Thus, Mitragyna parvifolia’s acetone extracts can be attributed to one of the several bioactive compounds that can be further studied in detail.
Roy, Sharda. (2012). A comparative study of antioxidant potential of successive chloroform and methanolic extracts from leaves of Mitragyna parvifolia. Journal of Natural Remedies. 12. 151- 156. 10. 18311/ jnr/ 2012/ 269. The tree Mitragyna parvifolia (Rubiaceae), commonly known as Kadamb, belongs to a small genus comprising 10 species. The plant has been used in folklore medicine since times immemorial. It possesses diverse medicinal and therapeutic properties such as analgesic, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, antiarthritic, antinociceptive, anticonvulsant, etc. which have been proven scientifically. The leaves were subjected to successive extraction using solvents in increasing order of polarity. Working dilutions of 20, 40, 60, 80, and 100 μg/ ml of successive chloroform and methanolic extracts were prepared. Similar working dilutions of the standard, L-ascorbic acid were also prepared. The dilutions of the test extracts and standard were subjected to different antioxidant assays (radical scavenging assay and reducing power assay) for estimation of total phenolic content. The antioxidant activity for all dilutions of successive methanolic extract was found to be higher when compared to that of successive chloroform extract. The IC50 values for the successive chloroform and methanolic extract were found to be >100 mcg/ ml and <20 mcg/ ml respectively whereas the total phenolic content in the successive chloroform and methanolic extract was found to be 44 and 160 mg of GAE/ g of dry extract. Thus, from the results obtained, it may be concluded that high levels of antioxidant activity in the successive methanolic extract may be attributed to the high phenolic content found in the same extract.
Jain, A.P. & Tote, M.V. & Mittal, A. & Mahire, N.B. & Undale, Vaishali & Bhosale, A. Y. (2009). Antiarthritic and antipyretic activity of Mitragyna parvifolia leaves. Pharmacologyonline. 2. 739- 749. The methanolic extract of Mitragyna parvifolia (MEMP) leaves was investigated for its antiarthritic and antipyretic potential in animal models. For evaluation of arthritic using Acetic acid-induced vascular permeability in mice and Freund’s adjuvant-induced arthritis in rats antipyretic activity was analyzed using Yeast induced pyrexia in rats; MEMP was administered orally at 125,250 and 500 mg/kg and showed significant antiarthritic, antipyretic effect (p< 0.05-0.01). The result of the acute toxicity test at which the maximum toxic dose was above 5 g/ kg indicates that the plant extract is relatively safe in mice.
Vishal, B. & Sanjay, J. (2010). In vitro investigation of anthelmintic activity of Mitragyna parvifolia (Roxb.) Korth. (Rubiaceae). Veterinary World. 3. 326- 328. 10. 5455/ vetworld. 2010. 326- 328. In the present study anthelmintic activity of Mitragyna parvifolia (Roxb.) Korth. (Rubiaceae) stem bark was performed in vitro against earthworms. Methanol extract from dried stem bark was used for the study. The methanolic extract of M. parvifolia stem bark at the concentration of 100 mg/ml produced significant anthelmintic activity, whereas 20 mg/ ml lower concentration did not produce significant results when compared with standard (P< 0.01). The result of the anthelmintic activity of the methanolic extract produced was evaluated by observing the paralysis time and death time of earthworms and was found to be dose-dependent. This finding proves the usefulness of stembark as an anthelmintic drug.
Mandrupkar, Supriya. (2017). ANTHELMINTIC ACTIVITY OF MITRAGYNA PARVIFOLIA (ROXB) KORTH FRUIT EXTRACT. WORLD JOURNAL OF PHARMACY AND PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES. 10. 20959/ wjpps- 201712- 10628. The present research program aimed to investigate the anthelmintic activity of the aqueous extract of Mitragyana parvifolia (Roxb). Korth fruit against adult Indian earthworm Pheritimaposthuma. Methanol &ethanol extract of dried fruit was used for the study. The ethanolic extract of M. Parvifolia fruit at the concentration of 100 mg/ml showed significant anthelmintic activity, whereas a lower concentration of 20 mg/ ml did not produce significant results when compared with the Piperazine citrate standard. The result of the anthelmintic activity of methanolic & ethanolic extract produced was evaluated by observing the paralysis time and death time of earthworms and was found to be dose-dependent. This finding proves the usefulness of fruit as an anthelmintic drug.
Gupta, Verruchi & Kumar, P. & Bansal, Parveen & Singh, Ramdev. (2009). Anti-inflammatory and anti-nociceptive activity of Mitragyna parvifolia. Asian Journal of Medical Sciences. 1. 97- 99.
Kang, Wenyi & Li, Cai- Fang & Liu, Yu- Xin. (2010). Antioxidant phenolic compounds and flavonoids of Mitragyna rotundifolia (Roxb.) Kuntze in vitro. Medicinal Chemistry Research. 19. 1222- 1232. 10. 1007/ s00044-009- 9265- x. Different solvent extracts of leaves and bark of Mitragyna rotundifolia (Roxb.) Kuntze were evaluated by DPPH, ABTS, and FRAP assays, respectively, for antioxidant properties. Total phenolic and flavonoid content was determined as pyrocatechol and rutin equivalents, respectively, and correlated with antioxidant activities. More polar solvent extracts (n-butanol and ethyl acetate) had relatively higher antioxidant activity than nonpolar solvent extracts (petroleum ether). The n- n-butanol extract also exhibited a higher phenolic and flavonoid content than the other solvent extracts did. The DPPH assay was highly correlated with the ABTS assay (R 2= 0.9628, P< 0.0001). Two phenolic and four flavonoid compounds were isolated from the ethyl acetate leaf extracts. Compounds 3– 6 were isolated for the first time from the genus of Mitragyna and compound 5 showed the highest antioxidant activity.
Pundir, Ram & Shreya, Bishnoi. (2011). Antimicrobial activity of Mitragyna parvifolia barks and Butea monosperma leaves extracts against human pathogenic microbial strains. International Journal of Drug Development and Research. 3. 141- 147. The present study was designed to evaluate the antimicrobial efficacy of Mitragyna parvifolia (barks) and Butea monosperma (leaves) against human pathogenic microbial strains such as two Gram-positive (Staphylococcus epidermidis, Bacillus subtilis), two Gram-negative (Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa) and two yeasts (Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Candida albicans) assayed by using agar well diffusion assay. Three different extracts (ethanol, methanol, and water) of each plant were used during the study. M. parvifolia extracts showed better activity than the B. monosperma extracts. The zone of inhibition in M. parvifolia extracts (ethanolic and methanolic) was in the range of 14mm to 25mm and 10mm to 14mm in the case of B. monosperma extracts. The aqueous extracts did not show any inhibitory activity against any of the test bacterial strains. No antifungal activity was observed against the test yeast strains. The MIC values of the methanol extract of Mitragyna parvifolia for different bacterial strains ranged from 6.25 mg/ ml to 12.5 mg/ ml. Based on this finding, the extracts demonstrating antimicrobial efficacy could result in the discovery of novel antimicrobial agents.
Sahu, Dr. Ram & Tatewar, G. & Roy, Amit & Jha, A. (2009). In-Vitro Anthelmintic Activity of Leaves of Mitragyna Parvifolia. Biomedical and Pharmacological Journal. 2. 177- 179. The kidney, the excretory organ of our body, serves the important function of excretion of waste products, regulation of fluid volume, and electrolyte content of the extracellular fluid. Diuretics are drugs capable of increasing levels of urine. The diuretic activity of ethanol extract of Pistia stratiotes (ETPS) leaves was studied in male Wistar albino rats at 5th h and 24th h intervals. The animals were divided into 5 groups: control, urea, furosemide, 200 mg/ kg, and 400 mg/ kg ethanol extract. The ethanol extract was administered intraperitoneally (i.p) and all animals were pretreated with saline before starting the experiment. The urine volume (in ml) at the 5th h and 24th h duration was measured. The urine output increased significantly in urea, furosemide, and both ETPS groups. Ethanol extract increased the urine volume and electrolyte balance in a dose-dependent manner. The results indicate that ETPS has significant diuretic activity, which supports the traditional claim about the Pistia stratiotes being used as a diuretic.
Dwivedi, Apoorva & Das, Sinchan & Tiwari, Vaishali & Jain, Sunil & Mandal, Vivekananda & Mukherjee, Souvik & Satpathy, Swaha & Mohapatra, Debadatta & Sahu, Alakh & Satpathy, Mantra & Mehta, Sanjay & Singh, Sneha & Goyal, Manoj & Kazi, Mohsin & Hussain, Muhammad & Patra, Arjun. (2024). Microwave-assisted green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Mitragyna parvifolia bark extract and their biological activities: an economical and environment-friendly approach. Green Chemistry Letters and Reviews. 17. 10. 1080/ 17518253. 2024. 2395919. Nowadays, nanotechnology is extensively employed in the medical profession. In this study, we used the aqueous extract of the bark of Mitragyna parvifolia to synthesize silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) by microwave-assisted green synthesis. The synthesis of AgNPs was confirmed by visual color change to brown color and characteristic surface plasmon resonance peak at 432 nm. The hydrodynamic diameter of the AgNPs was 171.81 nm having a zeta potential of −24.14 mV; Fourier Transmission Infrared Spectroscopy confirmed the presence of different functional groups on the NP surface; Scanning Electron Microscope and High-Resolution Transmission Electron Microscopy indicated predominantly circular shape of nanoparticle; Selected Area Electron Diffraction and X-ray Diffraction analyses determined the crystalline structure of AgNPs. Energy-dispersive X-ray indicated the elemental composition and formation of AgNPs. The AgNPs were screened at different concentrations for antioxidant activity, antimicrobial, and anticancer potential in breast cancer cells (MCF-7 and MDA- MB- 231). The AgNPs exhibited remarkable antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anticancer activities. The sedative and antinociceptive activities were also tested on Swiss albino mice, which showed mild sedative and very potent antinociceptive activity. However, detailed mechanistic studies are warranted in the future for the clinical application of AgNPs as a biologically active agent as well as a carrier for drug delivery.
Monjanel-Mouterde, S & Traore, F & Gasquet, M & Dodero, F & Delmas, F & Ikoli, J.F. & Lorec, A.M. & Chamlian, V & Portugal, H & Balansard, G & Pisano, P. (2006). Lack of toxicity of hydroethanolic extract from Mitragyna inermis (Willd.) O. Kuntze by gavage in the rat. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 103. 319- 26. 10. 1016/ j. jep. 2005. 08. 028. In traditional medicine in Mali, extracts derived from Mitragyna inermis (Willd.) O. Kuntze (Family: Rubiaceae) are commonly used to treat malaria. The antimalarial activity and the lack of genotoxicity in vitro and in vivo have been demonstrated in previous studies. Acute and chronic evaluation of the toxicity of the hydroethanolic extract of Mitragyna inermis leaves was performed in this study, according to the recommendations (cahier de l’Agence no. 3) of the French Drug Office. Two dosages (300 mg/ kg and 3 g/ kg) were given in one single administration by gavage to male and female rats. No animal died and no behavioral signs of acute toxicity were observed. Chronic toxicity studies over 28 days showed no changes in body weight and no macroscopic abnormality in the 14 organs examined after the animals were sacrificed. With the 3 g/ kg/ d drug dosage (100-fold higher than those proposed in man), only slight histological abnormalities were observed. Statistically significant differences, compared to control animals, in the weight of some organs and the values of some hematological or biochemical parameters were observed. However, these values always remained in the range given by the breeder for naive animals of the same strain. These investigations thus seemed to indicate the safety of repeated oral administration (up to 3 g/ kg/ d) of the hydroethanolic extract of Mitragyna inermis leaves, which can therefore be continuously used safely by the African population in the traditional treatment of malaria.
Bansal, Parveen. (2009). Anti-inflammatory and Anti-nociceptive Activity of Mitragyna parvifolia.
Pandey, Richa & Singh, Subhash & Gupta, Prof Madan. (2006). Heteroyohimbinoid type oxindole alkaloids from Mitragyna parvifolia. Phytochemistry. 67. 2164- 9. 10. 1016/ j. phytochem. 2006. 06. 017. The leaves of the plant Mitragyna parvifolia have afforded two alkaloids, 16, 17- dihydro- 17beta- hydroxy isomitraphylline (1) and 16, 17- dihydro- 17beta- hydroxy mitraphylline (2), together with two known alkaloids, isomitraphylline (3) and mitraphylline (4). The structures of 1 and 2 were elucidated using 1D and 2D NMR spectral methods, including (1)H- (1) HCOSY, DEPT, HSQC, and HMBC. Mitraphylline was the main alkaloid constituent.
Jebaseelan, Jefrillah & Sadiq, Sheerin & Ravikumar, Abi & Anand, Setty. (2024). Mitragyna parvifolia as a potential therapeutic agent for lymphatic filariasis. Journal of Parasitic Diseases. 48. 1- 11. 10. 1007/ s12639- 024-01683- 1. This study investigates the medicinal potential of Mitragyna parvifolia (M. parvifolia) leaves for the management of Lymphatic filariasis (LF). Phytochemical screening of the methanolic leaf extract revealed the presence of alkaloids, terpenoids, phenols, tannins, and flavonoids. The GC–MS analysis identified 24 phytoconstituents, including the major alkaloid “mitraphylline.” Infrared spectroscopy confirmed the presence of various functional groups corresponding to the identified compounds. The extract exhibited significant antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus epidermidis, Bacillus cereus, and Salmonella typhi. In vitro macrofilaricidal screening demonstrated dose-dependent inhibition of worm motility and MTT reduction, indicating its potential as a macrofilaricidal agent. The larvicidal bioassay showed notable effectiveness against Culex quinquifasciatus larvae, with 1 % concentration displaying the highest larvicidal activity. Concentration-dependent antioxidant activity was observed using the DPPH assay, with 100 µg/ ml showing the highest antioxidant potential. The findings suggest the potential of M. parvifolia leaves for LF management, supporting further research to identify active compounds and elucidate their mechanisms of action. The study highlights the plant’s diverse bioactive compounds, antibacterial and macrofilaricidal activities, larvicidal efficacy, and significant antioxidant properties. Future investigations, including in vivo experiments and clinical trials, are warranted to validate the safety and efficacy of M. parvifolia as a potential therapeutic agent for LF.
Badgujar, Vishal & Surana, Sanjay. (2010). Anti-Inflammatory and Antinociceptive Activities of Methanol Extract and Alkaloid Rich Fraction of Mitragyna parvifolia Stem- Bark in Animal Models. Journal of Complementary and Integrative Medicine. 7. 10. 2202/ 1553- 3840. 1349. Mitragyna parvifolia (Roxb.) Korth (Rubiaceae) is widely used as an acrid, anodyne, bitter, stomachic, febrifuge, and in the treatment of gastropathy, colic, fever, and inflammation. In the present study, the anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive properties of the stem bark methanol extract (MPBM) extracted by Soxhlet extraction and an alkaloid-rich fraction (MPBAlk) of M. parvifolia were investigated on various animal models. MPBM extract and MPBAlk fraction when tested separately, showed statistically significant (P < 0.01) anti-inflammatory activity by inhibition of percentage rise in paw edema as compared to the control group in a dose-dependent manner at different time intervals. When evaluated in acetic acid-induced writings, hot plate, and tail flick method in mice, MPBM extract, and MPBAlk fraction showed significant analgesic activity at a higher dose of 400 mg/ kg, whereas activity was moderate at a lower dose. These findings suggest that M. parvifolia stem-bark possesses significant and dose-dependent anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive effects. Chemical analysis shows the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, glycosides, and tannins which may be responsible for these activities.
Vasmatkar, Pashupat & Dubey, Ashutosh & Tyagi, Bhawna & Baral, Pratibha & Tandon, Shishir & Kadam, A. (2014). Antibacterial activity and GC-MS analysis of methanolic extract from stem bark and leaves of Mitragyana parvifolia (Roxb.) Korth. Indo-American Journal of Pharmaceutical Research. 4. 304- 311. Mitragyna parvifolia is an important medicinal tree that belongs to the family Rubiaceae. It is traditionally mainly known for its antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties. The antibacterial activity with its Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) was determined by disk diffusion testing against Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Bacillus subtilis, the investigation was also carried out to determine the possible bioactive components of leaf and bark methanolic extract using Gas Chromatograph and mass spectrometer (GCMS). The highest antibacterial potential was demonstrated against E. coli with 31± 1.4 mm and 31.5± 2.12 mm zone of inhibition by leaves and bark extract respectively and interestingly which is found to be more than chloramphenicol. The MIC for both extracts was 12 mg/ml for the same bacterial strain. The lowest MIC of each extract was seen against B. subtilis. The major compounds identified in the extracts of leaf and bark were isobutanol acid, 2-ethylhexyl ester (19.36%), 4 methyl mannose (53.13 %), mitraphylline (21.59 %), isomitraphylline (3.37 %) and 1, 2 Hydrazine dicarboxylic acid, diethyl ester (3.50 %), α, α- dimethyl mucconic acid (22.97 %), isobutanol acid, 2- Ethylhexyl ester (43.83 %), α- D- glucopyranoside, α- D- glucopyranosyl (27.21 %) respectively. Among these compounds found in the leaf of M. parvifolia, a pentacyclic oxindole alkaloid mitraphylline is known for its anti-inflammatory, antiproliferative activities. Our investigation conducted on different parts of this plant validates the traditional usage of this plant as antimicrobial and several compounds identified by GC-MS analysis are principal factors for significant antibacterial activities.
Alqahtani, Mohammed & Shukla, Ashutosh & Harsola, Laxmikant & Shaik, Baji & Syed, Rabbani & Hassan, Ahmed. (2023). Mitragyna parvifolia- Effective against hyperglycemia, proinflammatory markers, and liver apoptosis in Streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. 10. 21203/ rs. 3. rs- 3342541/ v1. Ethanolic extract of Mitragyna parvifolia leaves was used as a traditional use in the treatment of diabetic conditions. The current study aimed to find out the effect of Mitragyna parvifolia ethanolic leaves extract (MPE) on hyperglycemia developed by streptozotocin (STZ) induced type 2 diabetes in rats. An animal model of diabetes type 2 was developed by the administration of STZ 90 mg/ Kg to two-day-old neonatal rat pups. Oral glucose tests and parameters were examined in diabetic rats after the different doses of extracts. The rats were divided into following groups: Group I –Normal control, Group II – STZ diabetic control, Group III –STZ Diabetic –orally administered MPEx at doses of 300 mg/ kg, Group IV STZ- Diabetic – orally administered at doses of 500 mg/ kg, Our study was confirmed that 8 weeks chronic treatment with MPE in a dose-dependent manner (300 and 500 mg/ kg) reduced hyperglycemia and significantly increased serum insulin, C-peptide. Histology of the liver was performed after sacrificing the rats with euthanasia. The ethanolic extract of MP did not show any acute toxicity up to the dose of 2000 mg/ kg and it was shown better glucose consumption in the oral glucose tolerance test. Orally treatment of different doses of MP leaf extract decreased the level of serum glucose, and reduced elevated levels of tumor necrosis factor α (TNF- α), and interleukin IL- 6 in the serum of diabetic rats. After the study, we found that elevated blood glucose and lipids were brought back to near normal. In addition, MPE also reduces elevated levels of tumor necrosis factor α (TNF- α), and interleukin IL- 6 in the serum of diabetic rats. We conclude that MPE exerted antidiabetic effects and reduced its associated complications such as dyslipidemia and inflammation. HE and confocal images of the TUNEL assay showed that MPE reduced inflammation and apoptosis in diabetic rats.
Pahaye, David & Ngo Bum, Elisabeth & Sotoing Taiwe, Germain & Ngoupaye, Gwladys & Sidiki, Neteydji & Moto, Fleur & Nadège, Kouemou & Njapdounke, Stephanie & Nkantchoua, Gisele Claudine & Kandeda, Antoine & Omam, J.P.O. & Mairaira, Veronique & Lucie, Ojong. (2017). Neuroprotective and Antiamnesic Effects of Mitragyna inermis Willd (Rubiaceae) on Scopolamine-Induced Memory Impairment in Mice. Behavioural Neurology. 2017. 1- 11. 10. 1155/ 2017/ 5952897.To assess memory improvement and neuroprotective and antioxidant effects of Mitragyna inermis (M. inermis) leaf decoction on the central nervous system. Leaf decoction of M. inermis was tested on learning and memory in normal and scopolamine-induced cognitive impairment in mice using memory behavioral tests such as the Morris water maze, object recognition task, and elevated plus maze. Oxidative stress enzymes—catalase, superoxide dismutase, and the thiobarbituric acid reactive substance, a product of lipid peroxidation—were quantified. In each test, mice 18 to 25 g were divided into groups of 5. The extract reversed the effects of scopolamine in mice. The extract significantly increased the discrimination index in the object recognition task test and the inflection ratio in the elevated plus maze test. The times spent in the target quadrant in MWM increased while the transfer latency decreased in mice treated with M. inermis at the dose of 196.5 mg /kg. The activity levels of superoxide dismutase and catalase were significantly increased, whereas the thiobarbituric acid reactive substance was significantly decreased after 8 consecutive days of treatment with M. inermis at the dose of 393 mg/kg. These results suggest that M. inermis leaf extract possesses potential antiamnesic effects.
Bassoueka, DJ & Sotoing Taiwe, Germain & Nsonde, GFN & Ngo Bum, Elisabeth. (2016). Anticonvulsant Activity of the Decoction of Crossopteryx febrifuga in Mice. International Journal of Science and Research (IJSR). 5. 112- 116. The decoction of Crossopteryx febrifuga is evaluated for anticonvulsant activity in mice using strychnine (STR), picrotoxin (PIC), pentylenetetrazole (PTZ), maximal electroshock (MES) and hydrazid (INH) induced convulsions. A decoction of C. febrifuga at doses of 80 and 100 mg/ kg protects 83.33 % of mice against STR-induced convulsions. At the dose of 120 mg/ kg, it protects 100 % of mice against PIC-induced convulsions. On PTZ-induced convulsions, C. febrifuga decoction protects 66.67% and 100 % of mice, respectively at doses of 120 and 100 mg/ kg. While, 66.67 % and 83.33 % of mice are protected against MES- induced convulsions respectively at the doses of 100 and 120 mg/ kg. Moreover, it increased the latency time of convulsions induced by INH at doses of 80, 100, and 120 mg/ kg.
Bidalia, A. & Okram, Z. & Hanief, Mohammad & Rao, Kottapalli. (2017). Assessment of tolerances in Mitragyna parvifolia (Roxb.) Korth. And Syzygium cumini Keels. Seedlings to waterlogging. Photosynthetica. 56. 10. 1007/ s11099- 017- 0724- 1.
Jadhav, Usha. (2022). A Review of MitragynaParvifolia (Roxb) Korth An Important Medicinal Plant. Journal of Science and Technology. 7. 53- 59. 10. 46243/ jst. 2022. v7. i01. pp53- 59.
Tyagi, Shubham & Gupta, Amit. (2020). Immunopharmacological Activities Related to Human Health Care: Flavonoids.
Vasmatkar, Pashupat. (2018). IN VITRO MICROPROPAGATION OF MITRAGYNA PARVIFOLIA (ROXB.) KORTH – AN ENDANGERED MULTIPURPOSE MEDICINAL TREE. Mitragyna parvifolia is an endangered medicinal tree belonging to the family Rubiaceae. In the present study, the feasibility of axillary bud was checked to develop an efficient protocol for micropropagation and callus induction. We reported callus induction protocol from leaf tissue for the first time in this plant, further, the organogenesis of this callus showed a very poor response. The highest dedifferentiation and regeneration of shoots from axillary bud was obtained on Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium supplemented with 0.75 mg/ l 6- benzylaminopurine (BAP), 0.5 mg/ l anaphthalene acetic acid (NAA) and 0.25 mg/ l indole butyric acid (IBA). Rooting of regenerated shoots was achieved efficiently on half MS medium fortified with 1 mg/ l NAA and 0.5 mg/ l Kinetin. A high frequency of callus induction from axillary buds was obtained on MS medium supplemented with 1 mg/l BAP and 0.75 mg/ l NAA and for leaf explants MS is supplemented with 1 mg/ l BAP and 0.25 mg/ l NAA. Green compact and white friable callus structures were produced after 21 days of inoculation from auxillary buds and leaf tissue respectively. Multiple shoot formation frequency of 92 % was achieved, signifying the feasibility of using auxiliary buds for rapid micropropagation.
Panwar, Jitendra & Tarafdar, J. (2006). Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal dynamics under Mitragyna parvifolia (Roxb.) Korth. in the Thar Desert. Applied Soil Ecology. 34. 200– 208. 10. 1016/ j. apsoil. 2006. 02. 001. The temporal and spatial dynamics of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) were investigated in the Indian Thar Desert. Soil samples under Mitragyna parvifolia were collected from July 2003 to June 2004. AMF colonization and spore density were used to compare the responses of AMF to different abiotic parameters. The mean percent colonization and spore density of AMF reached maximal values in the rainy and summer seasons, respectively. Vesicular and hyphal colonizations were positively correlated with soil organic carbon content. AMF spore density was positively correlated with soil pH and negatively correlated with Olsen P content. A high Shannon– Weiner diversity index of AMF was observed in the Thar Desert. A total of fifteen AMF species were associated with M. parvifolia. Percent spore density and species richness suggest that the genus Glomus was the predominant AMF in the Thar Desert environment. The reasons for the observed variations are discussed.
Gong, Fang. (2012). Hepatoprotective effect of Mitragyna rotundifolia Kuntze on CCl4- induced acute liver injury in mice. African Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology. 6. 330- 335. 10. 5897/ AJPP11. 766.
Sahu, Dr. Ram & Kumar, H. & Roy, Amit. (2008). Antipyretic effect of the ethanol extract obtained from leaves of Mitragyna parvifolia on a pyretic model induced by brewer’s yeast. Biosciences Biotechnology Research Asia. 5. 881- 883. The objective of the present study was to investigate the antipyretic activities of ethanol extract of M. parvifolia leaves. The antipyretic activity of M. parvifolia was studied in Brewer’s yeast-induced pyrexia in rats. The ethanol extract (25 mg/ kg, 50 mg/ kg, and 100 mg/ kg) showed a reduction in normal body temperature and yeast provoked elevated temperature in a dose-dependent manner. The effect became significant at 60 min at the highest dose of 100 mg/ kg. The results suggest that M. parvifolia contains biologically active substances with potential values in treating fever. These provide scientific evidence to support the isolation and development of biologically active components as antipyretic agents.
Gupta, Amit & Chaphalkar, Sushama. (2016). Immunosuppressive and Cytotoxic Potential of Flavonoids from Mitragyna parvifolia, Mangifera indica and Aegle marmelos. Research & Reviews: Journal of Pharmacology and Toxicological Studies. 4. 1- 5.
Kaushik, Dhirender & Khokra, Sukhbir & Kaushik, Pawan & Saneja, Ankit & Arora, Divya. (2009). Anticonvulsant Activity of Mitragyna Parvifolia Leaves Extract. Pharmacologyonline. 3. 101- 106. The anticonvulsant effect of ethanolic extract from the leaves of Mitragyna parvifolia was investigated by studying the impact of seizures induced by pentylenetetrazole (PTZ) and maximal electroshock convulsive methods in mice. The extract was administered orally in mice at three doses (100, 250 and 500 mg/ kg). The extract suppressed tonic hind limb extensions (THLE) induced by MES at the doses of 250 and 500 mg/ kg (p< 0.05) and also exhibited a protective effect in PTZ-induced seizures only at 500 mg/ kg (p< 0.05). The activity reported was dose-dependent in both models.
Kotval, Shailesh & John, Tessy & Parmar, Kokila. (2018). Green Synthesis of Copper Nanoparticles using Mitragyna parvifolia Plant Bark Extract and Its Antimicrobial Study. Journal of Nanoscience and Technology. 4. 456- 460. 10. 30799/ jnst. 133.18040415. In this study, Mitragyna parvifolia plant bark is used to prepare aqueous extract which provides a cost-effective, eco-friendly process, less time-consuming, environmentally benign, easy, and proficient way to synthesize copper nanoparticles. Mitragyna parvifolia plant bark was collected from the Virpur Hills forest area. The Mitragyna parvifolia plant bark extract was prepared with deionized water and used for the green synthesis of copper nanoparticles. The color change of the solution to dark brown from pale yellow color confirms the formation of copper nanoparticles. The green synthesized copper nanoparticles were characterized by UV-visible spectroscopy, FT-IR, XRD, SEM, and TEM, and their antimicrobial activity was also investigated. UV-visible spectral results confirmed the reduction of copper sulfate to copper nanoparticles. FTIR analysis is also supported for the formation of copper nanoparticles. The crystallinity of Cu NPs was found out by XRD study and the morphology of the particles was analyzed with the help of scanning electron microscopy and found spherical. The antibacterial activity experiment was done against Escherichia coli, gram-negative and Bacillus subtilis, gram-positive bacteria by agar well method, and the maximum zone of inhibition was higher in gram-positive bacteria compared to gram-negative bacteria. The green synthesized copper nanoparticles proved to be potential candidates for medical applications where antimicrobial activity is highly essential.

Recent Research on Mitragyna rotundifolia

Kang, Wenyi & Zhang, Bai-rang & Xu, Qi-tai & Li, Li & Hao, Xiao-jiang. (2006). [Study on the chemical constituents of Mitragyna rotundifolia]. Zhong yao cai = Zhongyaocai = Journal of Chinese medicinal materials. 29. 557-60. Twelve compounds were isolated from the EtOAc-soluble and ButOH-soluble portions of the EtOH extract from the bark of Mitragyna rotundifolia. These compounds were identified by their spectral data as taurine (1), 3, 4- hydroxybenzoic acid (2), beta-sitosterol (3), completion (4), 3, 4, 5- trimethyoxyphenol- 1-glucopyranoside (5), taraxerol (6), 4- hydroxy- 3- methyloxybenzoic acid (7), 3- hydroxy- 4- methyloxybenzoic acid (8), caffeic acid (9), gambirine (10), gambireine (11), 1, 1- dimetheyl- 2- acetl- diethyl ether (12), respectively. All compounds were isolated from this genus for the first time.
Kang, Wenyi & Hao, Xiaojiang. (2006). Triterpenoid saponins from Mitragyna rotundifolia. Biochemical Systematics and Ecology – BIOCHEM SYST ECOL. 34. 585- 587. 10. 1016/ j. bse. 2005. 11. 015.
Gong, Fang. (2012). Hepatoprotective effect of Mitragyna rotundifolia Kuntze on CCl4-induced acute liver injury in mice. African Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology. 6. 330- 335. 10. 5897/ AJPP11. 766.
Kang, Wenyi & Shi, Yuan-Yuan & Hao, Xiao-Jiang. (2007). Quinovic acid triterpenoid saponins from the bark of Mitragyna rotundifolia. Zhongguo Zhong Yao za zhi = Zhongguo Zhong Yao zazhi = China journal of Chinese materia medica. 32. 2015-8. To study the chemical constituents from the bark of Mitragyna rotundifolia. Column chromatographic techniques were applied to isolate constituents. A combination of IR, MS, and NMR spectroscopy was used to identify the structures of constituents. Six compounds were isolated from the n-BuOH fraction and their structures were elucidated as quinovic acid- 3- O- beta- D- 6- deoxy- glucopyranoside, 28- O- beta- D-glucopyranosyl ester (1), quinovic acid- 27- O- alpha- L- rhamnopyranosyl ester (2), quinovic acid- 3- O- alpha- L-rhamnopyranoside (3), novice acid- 27- O- beta- D- glucopyranosyl ester (4), quoting acid- 3- O- beta- D- 6-deoxy- glucopyranoside (5), novice acid- 27- O- beta- 6- deoxy- D- glucopyranosyl ester (6). Compounds 1 – 6 were isolated for the first time from the plant. Compounds 1 – 4 and 6 were isolated for the first time from the genus.
Sahakitpichan, Poolsak & Chadmuk, Piyawadee & Disadee, Wannaporn & Chimnoi, Nitirat & Ruchirawat, Somsak & Kanchanapoom, Tripetch. (2014). New trans- and cis-p-coumaroyl flavonol tetra glycosides from the leaves of Mitragyna rotundifolia. Phytochemistry Letters. 8. 10. 1016/ j. phytol. 2014. 02. 002. Two new flavonol tetraglycosides, quercetin 3- O- (4- O- trans- p- coumaroyl)- alpha- L- rhamnopyranosyl (1- > 2) [alpha- L-rhamnopyranosyl (1 -> 6)]- beta- D- glucopyranoside- 7- O- alpha- L- rhamnopyranoside (krathummuoside A) and quercetin 3- O- (4- O- cis- p- coumaroyl)- alpha- L- rhamnopyranosyl (1 -> 2) [alpha- L- rhamnopyranosyl (1 -> 6)]beta- D- glucopyranoside- 7- O- alpha- L- rhamnopyranoside (krathummuoside B) were isolated from the leaves of Mitragyna rotundifolia in addition to eight known compounds, quercetin 3- O- alpha- L- rhamnopuranosyl (1 -> 2) [alpha- L- rhamnopyranosyl (1 -> 6)]- beta- D- glucopyranoside- 7- O- alpha- L- rhamnopyranoside, rutin, (-)-epicatechin, 3, 4, 5- trimethoxyphenyl beta- D- glucopyranoside, (6S, 9R)- roseoside, 3- O- beta- D- glucopyranosyl quinovic acid 28- O- beta- D- glucopyranosyl ester, (+)- lyoniresinol 3 alpha- O- beta- D-glucopyranoside, and (+)- syringaresinol- 4- O- beta- D- glucopyranoside. The structure elucidation of these compounds was based on analyses of spectroscopic data including 1D- and 2D- NMR.
Salleh, Annas & Mastura, Wan & Kadir, Arifah. (2020). Antipyretic Effect of Mitragynine and Crude Methanolic Extract of Mitragyna speciosa Korth. In Mice. Pertanika Journal of Tropical Agricultural Science. 43. 207-216. Mitragyna speciosa Korth., also known as ketum or kratom, is a tropical plant native to Southeast Asia. Mitragynine is its major active alkaloid. It is traditionally used as a treatment for various conditions, including fever. The crude extract of M. speciosa leaves has been proven to have anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties. In general, M. speciosa induces a dose-dependent effect, inducing a stimulant effect at a low dose and an opioid-like effect at a high dose. This study was conducted to determine the antipyretic effect of mitragynine and methanolic extract of M. speciosa (MSM) using mice as an in vivo pyretic model. Eighty mice were divided into 8 groups: 6 treatment groups (mitragynine: 5, 10, and 20 mg/ kg; MSM: 50, 100, and 200 mg/kg) and 2 control groups (20 % Tween 80 in 0.9 % NaCl; ketoprofen 1 mg/ kg). Eighteen hours after induction of pyrexia by inoculation of yeast, rectal temperature was measured every half an hour for 5 hours. Compared to the negative control group, all groups treated with either mitragynine or MSM had a significant reduction of rectal temperature at different points in time. The positive control group treated with ketoprofen had a significant (P < 0.001) reduction of pyrexia from 0.5 to 5.0 hours after dosing. At 200 mg /kg, MSM has led to the opioid-like effect of hypothermia, possibly due to its synergistic effect with other compounds such as 7- hydroxy mitragynine or mitragynine pseudoindoxyl. This article discusses concerns about the toxicity of mitragynine and MSM and the possible involvement of cyclooxygenase and microsomal prostaglandin E2 synthase pathways. In conclusion, mitragynine and MSM possess dose-dependent antipyretic properties in mice.
Shellard, E. & Phillipson, J. & Gupta, D.. (2009). THE MITRAGYNA SPECIES OF ASIA. Planta Medica. 17. 51-58. 10. 1055/ s- 0028- 1099827.
Tapondjou, Azefack & Lontsi, David & Sondengam, Beiham & Choudhary, Muhammad & Park, Hee-Juhn & Choi, Jongwon & Lee, Kyung-Tae. (2002). Structure-activity relationship of triterpenoids isolated from Mitragyna stipulosa on cytotoxicity. Archives of pharmacal research. 25. 270- 4. 10. 1007/ BF02976624. Chromatographic separation of the stem bark extract of Mitragyna stipulosa afforded triterpene derivatives ursolic acid (1), quinovic acid (2), quinivic acid 3- O- beta- D- glucopyranoside (3, quinovin glycoside C), quinovic acid 3- O- [(2- O- sulfo)- beta- D- quinovopyranoside] (4, zygophyloside D) and quinovic acid 3- O- beta- D- quinovopyranosyl- 27-O- beta- D- glucopyranosyl ester (5, zygophyloside B). These five compounds were subjected to the cytotoxicity on MTT assay system. Compound 1 among the tested showed the most potent cytotoxicity. Quinovic acid showed less potent cytotoxicity than ursolic acid and sugar linkages to 2 decreased the cytotoxicity. Compound 4 is more potent than 3 which indicates that the sulfonyl group significantly enhances the activity. This indicates that the glycosidic linkage in ursane-type triterpenoids has a mainly negative effect on cytotoxicity unlike in oleanane-type glycosides.
León, Francisco & Gogineni, Vedanjali & Avery, Bonnie & Mccurdy, Christopher & Cutler, Stephen. (2014). Phytochemistry of Mitragyna speciosa. 10. 1201/ b17666- 7.
Nessa, Jebun & Shaikh Bokhtear, Uddin & Mahabub-Uz-Zaman, M. & Akter, Rasheda & Ahmed, Nazim. (2009). Antidiarrheal activity of ethanolic bark extract of Mitragyna diversifolia. Bangladesh Journal of Pharmacology. 4. 10. 3329/ bjp.v. 4i2. 2801. The ethanolic bark extract of Mitragyna diversifolia showed significant (p< 0.05) antidiarrheal activity on gastrointestinal motility with barium sulfate milk model and castor oil-induced diarrheal model in rats. These results revealed that the bark extract possesses pharmacological activity against diarrhea and may explain the use of the plant in traditional medicine.
Adina cordifolia
Negi, Sweta & Negi, Arvind & Pokriyal, Ankita & Tripathi, Geetika. (2023). Pharmacognostical investigation of “Adina cordifolia (Roxb.) Brandis” Family-Rubiaceae, collected from areas of Haldwani District Nainital. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry. 12. 309- 315. 10. 22271/ phyto. 2023. v12. i1d. 14591. Ayurveda is pelagic with lashing quantities of proclaimed and unrevealed medicinal gems. Due to the morphological structure and lack of knowledge certain medicinal gems of Ayurveda are debatable. Such as Adina cordifolia which is one of the controversial kinds of drug. Adina cordifolia is a Saffron Teak, Yellow, belonging to the family Rubiaceae, subfamily Cinchonoideae is endowed from India, Southern Asia, Srilanka, Vietnam, and Southern China. It is a buoyant, deciduous tree; that hinges disintegrated throughout the significant part of Indian deciduous forests and drifts in the sub-Himalayan zone up to an altitude of 900 m. Since immemorial times it has been utilized in folklore medicine. Adina cordifolia is a medicinal plant used for the treatment of chronic jaundice, skin disease, gastropathy, fever, cough, swelling in the stomach, stomachache, and several other diseases. In the present article, Adina cordifolia was investigated for Pharmacognostical screening such as Morphological Identification, Organoleptic properties, microscopic evaluation, Fluorescence Analysis, Determination of the moisture content, Determination of Ash values, Determination of percentage extractive, Loss on drying, and Determination of pH. Because Adina cordifolia is a controversial kind of drug having sparse research this study will be benevolent to push scientists to coordinate their studies.
Hossain, Md & Hossain, Md & Fatema, Kaniz & Siddique, Benazir & Sikder, Hanif & Sarker, Md & Jain, Preeti. (2015). An Evaluation on Antioxidant Activity, Total Phenolic and Total Flavonoid Contents of Extracts from Adina cordifolia (Roxb.). American Journal of Plant Sciences. 6. 633- 639. 10. 4236/ ajps. 2015. 65068. In this study, in vitro antioxidant activity, total phenolic content, and concentration of flavonoids of four different extracts of Adina cordifolia (Roxb.) were determined using spectrophotometric methods. The antioxidant activity of extracts was expressed as a percentage of DPPH radicals’ inhibition and IC50 values (μg/ ml). IC50 values ranged from 20.39 to 38.96 μg/ml. The total phenolic content ranged from 17.48 to 20.83 mg/ g of dry weight of extract, expressed as gallic acid equivalents. The total flavonoid concentrations varied from 17.49 to 22.48 mg/ g, expressed as quercetin equivalents. A significant linear correlation was confirmed between the values for the total phenolic content and antioxidant activity of plant extracts. Adina cordifolia (Roxb.) can be regarded as a promising candidate for natural plant sources of antioxidants with high value.
Baral, Pratibha. (2013). ANTIOXIDANT ANALYSIS AND SCREENING OF ANTIBACTERIAL ACTIVITY OF ADINA CORDIFOLIA BENTH. & HOOK.
Tahia, Faiza & Sikder, Md Al Amin & Al-Mansur, Muhammad & Rashid, Mohammad. (2019). Bioactivities of Adina cordifolia (Roxb.) Hook. f. – growing in Bangladesh. Bangladesh Journal of Botany. 48. 307- 313. 10. 3329/ bjb. v48i2. 47672. A total of three compounds were isolated from the methanol extract of the bark of Adina cordifolia (Roxb.) Hook. f. growing in Bangladesh and characterized as isoscopoletin (1), umbelliferone (2), and β- sitosterol (3) by analysis of high-field NMR spectral data as well as co-TLC with authentic compounds. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of different extracts of bark of A. cordifolia was evaluated against three Gram-positive and Gram-negative pathogenic bacteria. The carbon tetrachloride soluble fraction showed the lowest MIC value (7.81 μg/ ml) against Sarcina lutea as compared to 1.25 μg/ ml for ciprofloxacin. The crude extract demonstrated significant antidiarrheal, hypoglycemic, and peripheral analgesic activities at 200 and 400 mg/ kg body weight in mice. On the other hand, the crude extract of the bark of A. cordifolia revealed mild central analgesic activity.
Iqbal, Prince & Bhat, Abdul & Azam, Amir. (2008). Antiamoebic coumarins from the root bark of Adina cordifolia and their new thiosemicarbazone derivatives. European journal of medicinal chemistry. 44. 2252- 9. 10. 1016/ j. mech. 2008. 06. 003. In continuation of our search for potential antiamoebic agents from folklore Indian medicinal plants, we found that the benzene and ethyl acetate extracts from the root bark of Adina cordifolia exhibited strong antiamoebic activity with IC (50) values of 2.92 and 2.50 microg/ ml, respectively. Bioassay-guided fractionation of benzene and ethyl acetate extracts led to the isolation of 7- hydroxycoumarin (umbelliferone 1) and 7- beta- D- glucosylcoumarin (skimmin 2), respectively. Umbelliferone 1 was converted into 7- acetoxy coumarin 1a, which on treatment with aluminium chloride afforded 7- hydroxy- 8- acetylcoumarin 2a. A new series of thiosemicarbazones 3a- e of 7- hydroxy- 8- acetyl coumarin with different thiosemicarbazides were synthesized. Umbelliferone was also converted into its methoxy derivative (7- methoxy coumarin 4). Subsequently, all the compounds were assessed for antiamoebic activity against HM1: IMMS strain of Entamoeba histolytica. Umbelliferone and skimming were found to possess very good activity with IC (50) values of 6.38 and 4.35 microns/ml, respectively. The activity drastically increased on converting compound 2a into its thiosemicarbazone derivatives 3a -e with IC (50) values ranging between 1.06 and 4.46 microns/ ml. Compounds 3b, c, and e with IC (50) values of 1.49, 1.56, and 1.06 micron/ ml, respectively, exhibited even higher anti-amoebic activity than the standard drug metronidazole (IC (50) = 2.62 microg/ ml). The activity of 7-methoxy coumarin (IC (50) = 8.92 micron/ ml) was less than umbelliferone. Compounds 3b, c, and e were tested for toxicity using the H9c2 cardiac myoblasts cell line. The compounds exhibit > 80 % viability at 3.125- 200 microg/ ml. It is apparent from these results that umbelliferone and skimmin may be a useful lead for the development of new anti-amoebic drugs.
Dash, Pratima & Kumar, Sushil & Mishra, Anuradha & Srivastava, Sajal. (2022). Phytochemical Characterization & investigation of Haldina cordifolia Leaf Extract as a potential herbal drug. YMER Digital. 21. 319- 336. 10. 37896/ YMER21. 06/ 31. The current learning was intended to analyze the important phytoconstituents of a methanolic fraction of Haldina cordifolia leaf extract. Qualitative extraction of Haldina leaves was prepared using Methanolic extract. H cordifolia leaf extract confirms the presence of Flavanoids, Alkaloids, phenols, saponins, anthraquinone, Phytosterols, coumarins, and anthocyanins, which was confirmed from the TLC analysis. The FT- IR spectrum confirmed the presence of alkyl, methyl, ether, amino, alkene, alcohol, carboxyl, and carbonyl groups. UV spectral reports indicate the presence of unsaturated groups and hetero atoms such as S, N, and O [8]. The absorption spectrum for H. cordifolia extract shows five identifying peaks and confirms the presence of organic chromophores and a variety of functional groups within the H. cordifolia extract. LC-MS analysis data suggests the existence of hydroxyl coumarin compounds namely scopoletin, scopoletin, umbelliferone, and phytosterols like ß- sitosterol,epiglobulol, campesterol, and Caryophyllene oxide, etc., that can be considered for antimicrobial activity and it might largely contribute in action against multidrug-resistant microbes.
Roshan, Asha & Verma, Navneet. (2022). ANTIBACTERIAL ACTIVITY OF ETHANOL EXTRACTS OF LEAVES OF ADINA CORDIFOLIA. 10. 36673/ AJRPSB. 2021. v09. i04. A18.
Pagolu, Koteswara & Srinivasulu, S. & nadh, M. & Babu, B. Vikram & Reddi, M. & Krishna, A.. (2020). Anticancer and antibacterial activity of green synthesized silver nanoparticles using Adina cordifolia. Materials Today: Proceedings. 43. 10. 1016/ j. matpr. 2020. 10. 043. Extracts from plants are put to use for the green production of nanoparticles since they possess compounds that have the potential metal-reducing ability, are biologically active, and are environment-friendly, in abundance. The present study investigates the production of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) via the process of reducing silver nitrate by the cell-free leaf and stem aqueous extracts of Adina cordifolia (A. cordifolia) and its potential anticancer and antibacterial doings. The UV–visible, FT-IR, XRD, and SEM confirmed the synthesis of smaller, uniformly spherical AgNPs (10– 45 nm) from silver nitrate upon incubation with leaf and stem extract of A. cordifolia. The A. cordifolia stem extract synthesized AgNPs have shown noteworthy anticancer commotion against human breast and prostate adenocarcinoma (MDA- MB- 231 and PC- 3) cells with the IC50 values of 64.92 and 68.01 µg/ ml, in that order. At the same time, the leaf extract synthesized AgNPs comparatively showed slightly lower anticancer commotion with the IC50 values of 82.58 and 80.65 µg/ml, respectively. The synthesized AgNPs have also demonstrated higher antibacterial doings against Bacillus subtilis (Gram-positive) and Escherichia coli (Gram-negative) in comparison to Gentamycin. Hence, the AgNPs obtained by green synthesis can be therapeutically explored against adenocarcinoma and bacterial infections.
Jakaria, Md & Parvez, Mohammad & Zaman, Rashaduz & Arifujjaman, & Hasan, Md & Sayeed, Mohammed & Ali, Md. (2015). Investigations of Analgesic Activity of the Methanol Extract of Haldina cordifolia (Roxb.) Bark by using in vivo Animal Model Studies. Research Journal of Botany. 10. 98- 103. 10. 3923/ rjb. 2015. 98. 103. The present study was to investigate the analgesic activity of the methanol extract of H. cordifolia bark by using in vivo animal model studies. The effect was studied using an acetic acid-induced abdominal constriction test and formalin-induced hind paw licking test in a mice model. The results of the study showed that the extract exhibited a significant analgesic effect. In the acetic acid-induced writhing test, a significant percentage of inhibition (78.48 %) shows that at the dose of 400 mg kgG1 and the same dose in formalin-induced hand, paw licking model shows significant activity in the early phase (22.03 % of inhibition) where in the late phase (19.88 % of inhibition) comparable to standard drug diclofenac sodium. These findings suggested that H. cordifolia bark has the potential as a candidate for future analgesic agents.
Jain, Alok. (2006). Anti-inflammatory and anti-nociceptive activity of “Adina cordifolia. Nigerian Journal of Natural Products and Medicine. 10. 90- 93. Petroleum ether and ethyl acetate extracts of Adina cordifolia (Benth & Hook) bark, were screened for anti-inflammatory and analgesic activity by carrageenan-induced hind paw volume method and tail tlick method, respectively. Significant (p < 0.001) anti-inflammatory activity was observed in petroleum ether extract at different doses (100, 200, and 400 mg/ kg) as compared to that of the control. The same activity was observed in the case of ethyl acetate extract at 400 mg/ kg dose, but it was less as compared to that of petroleum ether extract at the same dose. Significant (p 0.01) analgesic activity was shown by ethyl acetate extract at different doses (100, 200, and 400 mg/ kg) and by petroleum ether extract at 200 and 400 mg/ kg dose as compared to that of control. Extracts showed dose-dependent action in all the experimental models Anti-inflammatory and anti-nociceptive activities exhibited by the extracts were compared to that of standard drugs.

Rasa Panchaka of Kadamba

Rasa (Taste)	Tikata (Bitter), Kashaya (Astringent) (Madhura Rasa / Katu Rasa also mentioned in some Nighantu)
Guna (Virtue)	Ruksha (Dry)
Virya (Potency)	Sheeta (Cold Potency)
Vipaka (Post-Digestion)	Katu (Pungent)
Prabhava (Effects)	Vedana Sthapaka, Vishghana

Dosha Karma of Kadamba

Tridosha Shamaka

In some Nighantu, it is mentioned Vata Pitta Shamaka. Vata Shamaka due to Madhura Rasa, Pitta Shamaka due to Sheeta Virya and Madhura, Tikta, Kashaya Rasa.

Karma (Actions) of Kadamba

Vedana Sthapana, Trishna Nighrahana, Vishtambhi (Vishtambhkara Janana), Shukra Shodhana, Stanya Shodhana, Yonidoshahara, Varnya, Jwaraghana, Amapachana, Daha Prashmana, Vrana Shodhana, Grahi, Chardinigrehana, Mutrajanana, Mutra Virechniya, Ashmari Sharkara Nashana, Yoni Doshahara, Daha Prashmana, Vishghana.

Prayogarha Vyadhi (Therapeutic Indications) of Kadamba

Netra Abhishyanda, Mukha Roga, Vedana, Atisara, Grahini, Rakta Atisra, Rakta Pitta, Sotha, Kasa, Ashmari, Sharkara, Yonivyapada, P;radara, Satnyakshaya, Jwara, Jwara Daha, Dourbalya, Visha.

Aamyik Paryog (Therapeutic Uses) of Kadamba

Vrana (Wounds): For covering wounds, the leaves of Kadamba, arjuna, nimba, patala, and Asvattha should be used. (Charaka Samhita Chikitsa Sthana. 25/ 95)

Sharkara, Ashmari (Gravels and Calculus): The root of Kadamba taken with wine or hot water alleviates the disorder. (Ashtanga Hridya Chikitsa Sthana. 11/ 29)

Mutra Vivarnta, Mutra Kriccha (Discoloration of urine and dysuria): In these disorders, ghee or milk processed with vidari or kadamba or fala fruit is prescribed. (Charaka Samhita Chikitsa Sthana. 18/ 154)

Krimi (Worms): In the infestation of worms, cakes prepared with the leaves of kadamba, bhringraja, and nirgundi should be given. (Ashtanga Hridya Chikitsa Sthana. 20/ 30)

Diarrhea (with bleeding): The patient should take, at night, the decoction of sunthi and kadamba bark for three days. (Vaidya Manorma. 6. 8)

Benefits of Kadamba

Externally the plant’s parts are used in different ailments. The mature and clean leaves of Kadamba are warmed and put on local inflammation and painful organs.
Leaves of Kadamba (Kadamba Patra) are also used to cover wounds.
The bark of plant drug Kadamba is pasted around the eyes in conjunctivitis.
The decoction of leaves of Kadamba is used as Vrana Shodhana for washing ulcers and in stomatitis as mouthwash internally (Mukhagandusa).
The decoction of the bark is given in diarrhea with blood or without blood.
The root of Kadamba is suggested to be used with warm water to alleviate the ailments of gravels and gravels.
In an infestation of worms (Krimi), the cakes are prepared with the leaves of Kadamba (Anthocephalus cadamba), Bhrigaraja (Eclipta alba), and Nirgundi (Vitex negundo).
In discoloration of urine and dysuria (mütravaivarnya and mutrakrchra).
Powder or juice of bark of the drug Kadamba mixed with jiraka and sugar powder is orally given for checking vomiting.
Juice of fruits is given to allay over thirst. Decoction of bark is used in calculus (as’mari).
Leaves juice or decoction in leucorrhoea (pradara).
In spermatorrhoea and vaginal complaints, the bark of kadamba is considered to be useful.
As an antipyretic, the bark or powder of Kadamba is used to allay the burning sensation and fever.
Bark and leaves are useful in intrinsic hemorrhage (raktapitta) and edema (sotha).

Matra (Dosage) of Kadamba

Twaka Churna (Bark Powder) – 3- 6 grams
Phala Swarasa (Fruit Juice) – 10- 20 ml
Twaka Kashaya (Bark Decoction) – 20- 50 ml

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Classical Reference of Kadamba

Bhava Prakasha Nighantu Pushpa Varga- 28

Synonyms and Properties

कदम्बः प्रियको नीपो वृत्तपुष्पो हलिप्रियः |

कदम्बो मधुरः शीतः कषायो लवणो गुरुः |

सरो विष्टम्भकृद्रूक्षः कफस्तन्यानिलप्रदः ||

Kaiydeva Nighantu Aushadi Varga, 955- 957

कदम्बको वृत्तपुष्पः पुलकी पर्वताह्वयः ||

कादम्बर्यः कुत्सिताम्भो परो नर्तापहारकः |

हरिप्रियः प्रावृषेण्यो नीपो गिरिकदम्बकः ||

कदम्बः शिशिरो ग्राही कषायो लवणो गुरुः |

निहन्ति योनिदोषास्रकृच्छदाहविषव्रणान् ||

Kaiydeva Nighantu Aushadi Varga, 958

Kadamba Patra

शीतवीर्यं तत्प्रवालं कषायं दीपनं लघु |

रक्तपितातिसारघ्नमरोचकविनाशनम् ||

Kaiydeva Nighantu Aushadi Varga, 959

Kadamba Phala

अम्लं तस्य फलं रुच्यं वीर्योष्णं श्लेष्मलं गुरु |

पक्वं वातहरं साम्लं कफपित्तप्रकोपनम् ||

Raja Nighantu Prabhadra Varga, 102

त्रिकदम्ब

त्रिकदम्बाः कटुर्वर्ण्या विषशोफहरा हिमाः |

कषायाः पित्तलास्तिक्ता वीर्यवृद्धिकराः पराः ||

Raja Nighantu Prabhadra Varga, 97- 98

Kadamba

कदम्बो वृत्तपुष्पश्च सुरभिर्ललनाप्रियः |

कादम्बर्यः सिन्धुपुष्पो मदाढ्यः कर्णपूरकः ||

कदम्बस्तिक्तकटुकः कषायो वातनाशनः |

शीतलः कफपित्तार्तिनाशनः शुक्रवर्धनः ||

Raja Nighantu Prabhadra Varga, 99

Dhara Kadamba

धाराकदम्बः प्रावृष्यः पुलकी भृङ्गवल्लभः |

मेघागमप्रियो नीपः प्रावृषेण्यः कदम्बकः ||

Raja Nighantu Prabhadra Varga, 100

Dhuli Kadamba/ Giri Kadamba

धूलीकदम्बः क्रमुकप्रसूनः परागपुष्पी बलभद्रसञ्ज्ञकः |

वसन्तपुष्पो मकरन्दवासो भृङ्गप्रियो रेणुकदम्बकोऽष्टौ ||

Raja Nighantu Prabhadra Varga, 101

Bhumi Kadamba

भूमिकदम्ब

भूमिकदम्बो भूनिम्बो भूमिजो भृङ्गवल्लभः |

लघुपुष्पो वृत्तपुष्पो विषघ्नो व्रणहारकः ||

Dhanwantri Nighantu Aamradi Varga, 105- 107

कदम्बो वृत्तपुष्पश्च नीपस्तु ललनाप्रियः |

कादम्बर्यः अङ्कवृक्षोऽन्यः सुवासः कर्णपूरकः ||

धाराकदम्बः प्रावृष्यः कादम्बर्यो हरिप्रियः |

नीपो धूलिकदम्बोऽन्यः सुवासो वृत्तपुष्पकः ||

कदम्बस्तु कषायः स्याद्रसे शीतो गुणोऽपि च |

व्रणसंरोहणश्चापि कासदाहविषापहः ||

Charaka Samhita Chikitsa Sthana. 18/ 149- 157

Mutra Vaivarnya & Mutra Kriccha

अजमोदा कदम्बस्य मूलं विश्वस्य चौषधम् |

पीतानि शर्करां भिन्द्युः सुरयोष्णोदकेन वा ||

सम्पूर्णरूपं क्षयजं दुर्बलस्य विवर्जयेत् |

नवोत्थितं बलवतः प्रत्याख्यायाचरेत् क्रियाम् ||

तस्मै बृंहणमेवादौ कुर्यादग्नेश्च दीपनम् |

बहुदोषाय सस्नेहं मृदु दद्याद्विरेचनम्|| ||

शम्पाकेन त्रिवृतया मृद्वीकारसयुक्तया |

तिल्वकस्य कषायेण विदारीस्वरसेन च |

सर्पिः सिद्धं पिबेद्युक्त्या क्षीणदेहो विशोधनम् |

(हितं तद्देहबलयोरस्य संरक्षणं मतम्) |

पित्ते कफे च सङ्क्षीणे परिक्षीणेषु धातुषु |

घृतं कर्कटकीक्षीरद्विबलासाधितं पिबेत् ||

विदारीभिः कदम्बैर्वा तालसस्यैस्तथा शृतम् |

घृतं पयश्च मूत्रस्य वैवर्ण्ये कृच्छ्रनिर्गमे ||

शूने सवेदने मेढ्रे पायौ सश्रोणिवङ्क्षणे |

घृतमण्डेन मधुनाऽनुवास्यो मिश्रकेण वा ||

जाङ्गलैः प्रतिभुक्तस्य वर्तकाद्या बिलेशयाः |

क्रमशः प्रसहाश्चैव प्रयोज्याः पिशिताशिनः ||

औष्ण्यात् प्रमाथिभावाच्च स्रोतोभ्यश्च्यावयन्ति ते |

कफं, शुद्धैश्च तैः पुष्टिं कुर्यात्सम्यग्वहन्रसः ||

Charaka Samhita Chikitsa Sthana. 25/ 95, 96

Vrana

कदम्बार्जुननिम्बानां पाटल्याः पिप्पलस्य च |

व्रणप्रच्छादने विद्वान् पत्राण्यर्कस्य चादिशेत् ||

वार्क्षोऽथवाऽऽजिनः क्षौमः पट्टो व्रणहितः स्मृतः |

बन्धश्च द्विविधः शस्तो व्रणानां सव्यदक्षिणः ||

Vaidya Manorma, 6- 8

………. पिबेद रक्त अतिसारवान।

शुष्ठी कदम्ब त्वक क्वाथ पिबेद रात्रौ दिन त्रयं।

Priya Nighantu Sharadi varga, 75

रुक्षो हिम: कदम्ब तुवर स तिक्तो निहन्ति कफ पित्त।

दाहं शोथम शूलं हन्ति विषघ्नो व्रणश्चापि ।

Charaka Samhita Sutra Sthana. 4/ 20

कुष्ठैलवालुककट्फलसमुद्रफेनकदम्बनिर्यासेक्षुकाण्डेक्ष्विक्षुरकवसुकोशीराणीति दशेमानि शुक्रशोधनानि भवन्ति |

Charaka Samhita Sutra Sthana. 4/ 47

शालकट्फलकदम्बपद्मकतुम्बमोचरसशिरीषवञ्जुलैलवालुकाशोका इति दशेमानि वेदनास्थापनानि भवन्ति |

Charaka Samhita Chikitsa Sthana. 3/ 257

चन्दन भद्रश्री कालानुसार्य कालीयक पद्मापद्मकोशीर सारिवा मधुक प्रपौण्डरीक नागपुष्पोदी च्यवन्यपद्मोत्पल नलिन कुमुद सौगन्धिक पुण्डरीक शतपत्र बिस मृणाल शालूक शैवालक शेरुकानन्ता कुशकाशेक्षु दर्भ शर नल शालि मूल जम्बु वेतस वानीर गुन्द्रा– ककुभासनाश्वकर्ण स्यन्दन वातपोथ शाल ताल धवति निश खदिर कदर कदम्ब काश्मर्यफल सर्ज प्लक्ष वट कपीतनोदुम्बराश्वत्थ न्यग्रोध धातकी दूर्वेत्कट शृङ्गाटक मञ्जिष्ठा ज्योतिष्मती पुष्करबीज क्रौञ्चादन बदरी कोविदार कदली संवर्त कारिष्ट शतपर्वा शीत कुम्भिका शतावरी श्रीपर्णी श्रावणी महाश्रावणी रोहिणी शीतपाक्योदनपाकी कालबला पयस्या विदारी– जीवक र्षभक मेदा महामेदा मधुर सर्ष्यप्रोक्तातृणशून्यमोचरसाटरूषक बकुल कुटज पटोल निम्ब शाल्मली नारिकेल खर्जूर मृद्वीका प्रियाल प्रियङ्गु धन्वनात्मागुप्तामधूकानामन्येषां च शीतवीर्याणां यथालाभमौषधानां कषायं कारयेत्| तेन कषायेण द्विगुणितपयसा तेषामेव च कल्केन कषायार्धमात्रं मृद्वग्निना साधयेत्तैलम्| एतत्तैलमभ्यङ्गात् सद्यो दाहज्वरमपनयति| एतैरेव चौषधैरश्लक्ष्णपिष्टैः सुशीतैः प्रदेहं कारयेत्|

एतैरेव च शृतशीतं सलिलमवगाहपरिषेकार्थं प्रयुञ्जीत| इति चन्दनाद्यं तैलम्| मध्वारनालक्षीरदधिघृतसलिलसेकावगाहाश्च सद्यो दाहज्वरमपनयन्ति शीतस्पर्शत्वात्||

Charaka Samhita Chikitsa Sthana.6/ 26

दार्वीं सुराह्वां त्रिफलां समुस्तां कषायमुत्क्वाथ्य पिबेत् प्रमेही|

क्षौद्रेण युक्तामथवा हरिद्रां पिबेद्रसेनामलकीफलानाम् ||

हरीतकीकट्फलमुस्तलोध्रं पाठाविडङ्गार्जुनधन्वनाश्च |

उभे हरिद्रे तगरं विडङ्गं कदम्बशालार्जुनदीप्यकाश्च ||

दार्वी विडङ्गं खदिरो धवश्च सुराह्वकुष्ठागुरुचन्दनानि |

दार्व्यग्निमन्थौ त्रिफला सपाठा पाठा च मूर्वा च तथा श्वदंष्ट्रा ||

यवान्युशीराण्यभयागुडूचीचव्याभयाचित्रकसप्तपर्णाः |

पादैः कषायाः कफमेहिनां ते दशोपदिष्टा मधुसम्प्रयुक्ताः ||

उशीरलोध्राञ्जनचन्दनानामुशीरमुस्तामलकाभयानाम् |

पटोलनिम्बामलकामृतानां मुस्ताभयापद्मकवृक्षकाणाम् ||

लोध्राम्बुकालीयकधातकीनां निम्बार्जुनाम्रातनिशोत्पलानाम् |

शिरीषसर्जार्जुनकेशराणां प्रियङ्गुपद्मोत्पलकिंशुकानाम् ||

अश्वत्थपाठासनवेतसानां कटङ्कटेर्युत्पलमुस्तकानाम् |

पैत्तेषु मेहेषु दश प्रदिष्टाः पादैः कषाया मधुसम्प्रयुक्ताः ||

सर्वेषु मेहेषु मतौ तु पूर्वौ कषाययोगौ विहितास्तु सर्वे |

मन्थस्य पाने यवभावनायां स्युर्भोजने पानविधौ पृथक् च ||

सिद्धानि तैलानि घृतानि चैव देयानि मेहेष्वनिलात्मकेषु|

मेदः कफश्चैव कषाययोगैः स्नेहैश्च वायुः शममेति तेषाम् ||

Charaka Samhita Chikitsa Sthana. 18/ 153

सम्पूर्णरूपं क्षयजं दुर्बलस्य विवर्जयेत्|

नवोत्थितं बलवतः प्रत्याख्यायाचरेत् क्रियाम्||

तस्मै बृंहणमेवादौ कुर्यादग्नेश्च दीपनम्|

बहुदोषाय सस्नेहं मृदु दद्याद्विरेचनम्||

शम्पाकेन त्रिवृतया मृद्वीकारसयुक्तया|

तिल्वकस्य कषायेण विदारीस्वरसेन च||

सर्पिः सिद्धं पिबेद्युक्त्या क्षीणदेहो विशोधनम्|

(हितं तद्देहबलयोरस्य संरक्षणं मतम् ||

पित्ते कफे च सङ्क्षीणे परिक्षीणेषु धातुषु|

घृतं कर्कटकीक्षीरद्विबलासाधितं पिबेत्||

विदारीभिः कदम्बैर्वा तालसस्यैस्तथा शृतम्|

घृतं पयश्च मूत्रस्य वैवर्ण्ये कृच्छ्रनिर्गमे||

शूने सवेदने मेढ्रे पायौ सश्रोणिवङ्क्षणे|

घृतमण्डेन मधुनाऽनुवास्यो मिश्रकेण वा||

जाङ्गलैः प्रतिभुक्तस्य वर्तकाद्या बिलेशयाः|

क्रमशः प्रसहाश्चैव प्रयोज्याः पिशिताशिनः||

औष्ण्यात् प्रमाथिभावाच्च स्रोतोभ्यश्च्यावयन्ति ते|

कफं, शुद्धैश्च तैः पुष्टिं कुर्यात्सम्यग्वहन्रसः||

Giri Kadamba (Mitragyna parviflora)

Ashtanga Hridya Uttara Sthana. 2/ 46

सैन्धवव्योषशार्ङ्गेष्टापाठागिरिकदम्बकान्||

शुष्यतो मधुसर्पिर्भ्यामरुच्यादिषु योजयेत्|

Shusruta Samhita Uttara Tantra. 31/ 4

Revati Pratisheda

तैलमभ्यञ्जने कार्यं कुष्ठे सर्जरसेऽपि च |

पलङ्कषायां नलदे तथा गिरिकदम्बके ||

Shusruta Samhita Uttara Tantra. 32/ 6

Putna Pratisheda

हितं घृतं तुगाक्षीर्यां सिद्धं मधुरकेषु च |

कुष्ठतालीशखदिरचन्दनस्यन्दने तथा ||

देवदारुवचाहिङ्गुकुष्ठं गिरिकदम्बकः |

एला हरेणवश्चापि योज्या उद्धूपने सदा ||

गन्धनाकुलिकुम्भीके मज्जानो बदरस्य च |

कर्कटास्थि घृतं चापि धूपनं सर्षपैः सह ||

Specific Formulation of Kadamba

Kadamba Twaka Churna for Ashmari
Grahinimihira Taila for Grahni and Bhagna
Chandanadi Taila for Daha and Jwara
Nyagrodhadi kwatha for Vrana
Kadambadi Kwatha for Kpahaja Parmeha

Contraindication and Side Effects of Kadamba

The flowers exhibit slight anti-implantation activity in test animals. So, avoid the use of Kadamba, especially flowers during pregnancy and lactation, or if necessary, must be used under medical supervision.

Toxicity

Acute toxicity was found in animal models at doses range higher than 3000 mg/kg and there was no mortality found at 3000 mg/ kg dose in animal models. The sub-acute toxicity was carried out at a dose of 600 mg/ kg. From the result, it is suggested that N. cadamba is non-toxic at doses of 600 mg/ kg.

Reference: Mondal S, Dash GK and Acharyya S. Analgesic, Anti-inflammatory and antipyretic studies of Neolamarckia cadamba barks. J. pharmacy res. 2009; 2: 1133- 1136. 30.

Bhunia SN, Mondal S, Dash GK and Samnata A. Toxicity study of few medicinal plants from the flora of Orissa used by folklore against various diseases. Journal of pharmacy research. 2009; 2: 1746- 1750.

Suggestive Reading Regarding Anthocephalus cadamba

Dwivedi, A., Sharma, K., & Sharma, Y. K. (2015). Cadamba: A miraculous tree having enormous pharmacological implications. Pharmacognosy Reviews, 9 (18), 107- 113. https:// doi. org/ 10. 4103/ 0973-7847. 162110.
Umachigi SP, Kumar GS, Jayaveera K, Kishore KD, Ashok KC, Dhanapal R. Antimicrobial wound healing and antioxidant activities of Anthocephalus cadamba. Afr J Tradit Complement Altern Med. 2007 Jun 10; 4 (4): 481- 7. PMID: 20161916; PMCID: PMC 2816507.
Ali S, Ishteyaque S, Khan F, Singh P, Soni A, Mugale MN. Accelerative Wound-Healing Effect of Aqueous Anthocephalus Cadamba Leaf Extract in a Diabetic Rat Model. Int J Low Extrem Wounds. 2023 Jun; 22 (2): 409- 417. doi: 10. 1177/ 15347346- 211018330. Epub 2021 May 14. PMID: 33988- 470.
Dolai N, Islam A, Haldar PK. Methanolic extract of Anthocephalus cadamba induces apoptosis in Ehrlich ascites carcinoma cells in experimental mice. Indian J Pharmacol. 2016 Jul- Aug; 48 (4): 445- 449. doi: 10. 4103/ 0253-7613. 186190. PMID: 27756959; PMCID: PMC 4980936.
Chandel M, Kumar M, Sharma U, Singh B, Kaur S. Antioxidant, Antigenotoxic and Cytotoxic Activity of Anthocephalus cadamba (Roxb.) Miq. Bark Fractions and their Phytochemical Analysis using UPLC- ESI- QTOF-MS. Comb Chem High Throughput Screen. 2017; 20 (9): 760- 772. doi: 10. 2174/ 13862=- 732066617- 0615102124. PMID: 28641513.
Pandey A, Chauhan AS, Haware DJ, Negi PS. Proximate and mineral composition of Kadamba (Neolamarckia cadamba) fruit and its use in the development of nutraceutical enriched beverages. J Food Sci Technol. 2018 Oct; 55 (10): 4330- 4336. doi: 10. 1007/ s13197- 018- 3382-9. Epub 2018 Aug 24. PMID: 30228432; PMCID: PMC6133846.
Dolai N, Karmakar I, Suresh Kumar RB, Kar B, Bala A, Haldar PK. Evaluation of antitumor activity and in vivo antioxidant status of Anthocephalus cadamba on Ehrlich ascites carcinoma treated mice. J Ethnopharmacol. 2012 Aug 1; 142 (3): 865- 70. Doi: 10. 1016/ j. jep. 2012. 05. 050. Epub 2012 Jun 15. PMID: 22705911.
Burlacu E, Tanase C. Anticancer Potential of Natural Bark Products-A Review. Plants (Basel). 2021 Sep 13; 10 (9): 1895. doi: 10. 3390/ plants: 10091895. PMID: 34579427; PMCID: PMC 8467168.
Dolai N, Islam A, Haldar PK. Antiproliferative Activity and Apoptosis Inducing Mechanism of Anthocephalus cadamba on Dalton’s Lymphoma Ascites Cells. Iran J Pharm Res. 2016 Summer; 15 (3): 505- 514. PMID: 27980586; PMCID: PMC- 5149038.
Chandel M, Sharma U, Kumar N, Singh B, Kaur S. Antioxidant activity and identification of bioactive compounds from leaves of Anthocephalus cadamba by ultra-performance liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization quadrupole time of flight mass spectrometry. Asian Pac J Trop Med. 2012 Dec; 5 (12): 977- 85. doi: 10. 1016/ S1995- 7645 (12) 60186- 2. PMID: 23199718.
Umachigi SP, Kumar GS, Jayaveera K, Kishore KD, Ashok KC, Dhanapal R. Antimicrobial wound healing and antioxidant activities of Anthocephalus cadamba. Afr J Tradit Complement Altern Med. 2007 Jun 10; 4 (4): 481- 7. PMID: 20161916; PMCID: PMC- 2816507.
Kumar V, Khan MM, Khanna AK, Singh R, Singh S, Chander R, Mahdi F, Mahdi AA, Saxena JK, Singh RK. Lipid Lowering Activity of Anthocephalus indicus Root in Hyperlipidemic Rats. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2010 Sep; 7 (3): 317- 22. doi: 10. 1093/ ecam/ nen001. Epub 2008 Feb 4. PMID: 18955320; PMCID: PMC- 2887325.
Chandel M, Kumar M, Sharma U, Singh B, Kaur S. Investigations on Antioxidant, Antiproliferative and COX- 2 Inhibitory Potential of Alkaloids from Anthocephalus cadamba (Roxb.) Miq. Leaves. Chem Biodivers. 2017 Apr; 14 (4). doi: 10. 1002/ cbdv. 201600376. Epub 2017 Mar 20. PMID: 27973724.
Pandey A, Negi PS. Traditional uses, phytochemistry and pharmacological properties of Neolamarckia caramba: A review. J Ethnopharmacol. 2016 Apr 2; 181: 118- 35. Doi: 10. 1016/ j. jep. 2016. 01. 036. Epub 2016 Jan 25. PMID: 26821190.
Yuan HL, Zhao YL, Qin XJ, Liu YP, Yu HF, Zhu PF, Jin Q, Yang XW, Luo XD. Anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities of Neolamarckia cadamba and its bioactive monoterpenoid indole alkaloids. J Ethnopharmacol. 2020 Oct 5; 260: 113103. Doi: 10. 1016/ j. jep. 2020.113103. Epub 2020 Jun 20. PMID: 3256- 9718.
Shrivastava AK, Keshari M, Neupane M, Chaudhary S, Dhakal PK, Shrestha L, Palikhey A, Yadav CK, Lamichhane G, Shekh MU, Yadav RK. Evaluation of Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Activities, and Metabolite Profiling of Selected Medicinal Plants of Nepal. J Trop Med. 2023 Nov 3; 2023: 6641018. Doi: 10. 155/ 2023/ 6641018. PMID: 37954133; PMCID: PMC10637841.
Devgan, M. & Bhatia, Lovkesh & Kumar, H. (2012). Anthocephalus caramba: A comprehensive review. Research Journal of Pharmacy and Technology. 5. 1478 -1483.
Ahmed F, Rahman S, Ahmed N, Hossain M, Biswas A, Sarkar S, Banna H, Khatun A, Chowdhury MH, Rahmatullah M. Evaluation of Neolamarckia cadamba (Roxb.) Bosser leaf extract on glucose tolerance in glucose-induced hyperglycemic mice. Afr J Tradit Complement Altern Med. 2011; 8 (1): 79- 81. doi: 10. 4314/ ajtcam. v8i1. 60549. Epub 2010 Oct 2. PMID: 22238487; PMCID: PMC- 3218441.
Amin ZA, Alshawsh MA, Kassim M, Ali HM, Abdulla MA. Gene expression profiling reveals the underlying molecular mechanism of the hepatoprotective effect of Phyllanthus niruri on thioacetamide-induced hepatotoxicity in Sprague Dawley rats. BMC Complement Altern Med. 2013 Jul 5; 13: 160. doi: 10. 1186/ 1472- 6882- 13- 160. PMID: 23829630; PMCID: PMC- 3704918.
Chandrashekar, K. S., Abinash, B., & Prasanna, K. S. (2009). Anti-Inflammatory Effect of the Methanol Extract from Anthocephalus cadamba Stem Bark in Animal Models. International Journal of Plant Biology, 1 (1), e6. https:// doi. org/ 10. 4081/ pb. 2010. e6
Huang, P., Chen, M., Chen, D., Zang, M., Zhang, W., Lin, X., Han, H., & Zhang, Q. (2024). Effects of Neolamarckia cadamba Leaf Extract on Dynamic Fermentation Characteristics and Bacterial Community of Stylosanthes guianensis Silage. Fermentation, 10 (7), 347. https:// doi. org/ 10. 3390/ fermentation/ 10070347
Salehi B, Ata A, V Anil Kumar N, Sharopov F, Ramírez- Alarcon K, Ruiz-Ortega A, Abdulmajid Ayatollahi S, Tsouh Fokou PV, Kobarfard F, Amiruddin Zakaria Z, Iriti M, Taheri Y, Martorell M, Sureda A, Setzer WN, Durazzo A, Lucarini M, Santini A, Capasso R, Ostrander EA; Atta- ur- Rahman; Choudhary MI, Cho WC, Sharifi-Rad J. Antidiabetic Potential of Medicinal Plants and Their Active Components. Biomolecules. 2019 Sep 30; 9 (10): 551. doi: 10. 3390/ biom- 9100551. PMID: 31575072; PMCID: PMC 6843349.
Venmathi Maran, B. A., Iqbal, M., Gangadaran, P., Ahn, B., Rao, P. V., & Shah, M. D. (2021). Hepatoprotective Potential of Malaysian Medicinal Plants: A Review on Phytochemicals, Oxidative Stress, and Antioxidant Mechanisms. Molecules, 27 (5), 1533. https:// doi. org/ 10. 3390/ molecules/ 27051533.
Nagakannan P, Shivasharan BD, Veerapur VP, Thippeswamy BS. Sedative and antiepileptic effects of Anthocephalus cadamba Roxb. in mice and rats. Indian J Pharmacol. 2011 Nov; 43 (6): 699- 702. doi: 10. 4103/ 0253- 7613.89829. PMID: 22144777; PMCID: PMC 3229788.
Pathak, Rashmi & Sharma, Himanshu & Kumar, Nitin. (2022). A Brief Review on Anthocephalus cadamba. 3. 7-14.
M Khatta, A. N., Mekai, M. H., Kadir, A. M., Suhinin, O. A., Suhaidi, H., Abdullah, N., Nyen, K. P., Kimjus, K., Terhem, R., & Hassan, A. (2023). Acclimatisation of White Laran (Neolamarckia cadamba Roxb. Bosser) and Binuang (Octomeles sumatrana Miq.) Seedlings to Water-Logged and Water-Stress Conditions. Forests, 14 (3), 500. https:// doi. org/ 10. 3390/ f14030500
Dai, B., Chen, C., Liu, Y., Liu, L., Qaseem, M. F., Wang, J., Li, H., & Wu, A. (2019). Physiological, Biochemical, and Transcriptomic Responses of Neolamarckia cadamba to Aluminum Stress. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 21 (24), 9624. https:// doi. org/ 10. 3390/ items- 21249624
Kumar, R. N., Prasanth, D., Midthuri, P. G., Ahmad, S. F., Badarinath, A. V., Karumanchi, S. K., Seemaladinne, R., Nalluri, R., & Pasala, P. K. (2022). Unveiling the Cardioprotective Power: Liquid Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS)-Analyzed Neolamarckia cadamba (Roxb.) Bosser Leaf Ethanolic Extract against Myocardial Infarction in Rats and Silico Support Analysis. Plants, 12 (21), 3722. https:// doi. org/ 10. 3390/ plants- 12213722.
Singh, Ranjan Kumar, Ajay Garg, Rajiv Kukkar, Vaibhav Saxena, and Sanjay Rao. “Botanical description, phytochemistry, traditional uses, and pharmacology of Anthocephalus cadamba: An updated review.” World Journal of Biology Pharmacy and Health Sciences 12, no. 3 (2022): 132- 145.
Gupta, Nidhi, Arem Qayum, Shashank Singh, Somdutt Mujwar, and Payare L. Sangwan. “Isolation, cytotoxicity evaluation, docking, ADMET and drug-likeness studies of secondary metabolites from the stem bark of Anthocephalus cadamba (roxb.).” ChemistrySelect 7, no. 43 (2022): e- 20220- 2950.
Nagakannan, Pandian, Basavaraj D. Shivasharan, Veeresh P. Veerapur, and Boreddy S. Thippeswamy. “Sedative and antiepileptic effects of Anthocephalus cadamba Roxb. in mice and rats.” Indian Journal of Pharmacology 43, no. 6 (2011): 699-702.
Dolai, Narayan, Aminul Islam, and Pallab Kanti Haldar. “Methanolic extract of Anthocephalus cadamba induces apoptosis in Ehrlich ascites carcinoma cells in experimental mice.” Indian Journal of Pharmacology 48, no. 4 (2016): 445- 449.
Sruthi, Kaveripakam Sai, and Adikay Sreedevi. “GC-MS Analysis and Computational Studies of Roots of Anthocephalus Cadamba.” In Advances in Computational and Bio- Engineering: Proceeding of the International Conference on Computational and Bio Engineering, 2019, Volume 1, pp. 569-581. Springer International Publishing, 2020.
Sharma, Tarubala, Vishal Khandelwal, Saurabh Gupta, and Shoorvir Singh. “Secondary metabolites, a boon for plants; their role in defense mechanisms and antioxidant activity of Anthocephalus cadamba.” Antioxidants in plant-microbe interaction (2021): 413- 424.
Pandey, Arti, and Pradeep Singh Negi. “Traditional uses, phytochemistry and pharmacological properties of Neolamarckia cadamba: A review.” Journal of Ethnopharmacology 181 (2016): 118- 135.
Dolai, Narayan, Uma Kumari, Aminul Islam, and Pallab Kanti Haldar. “Inhibitory effects of Anthocephalus cadamba stem bark fractions intercede anti-inflammatory, and carbon tetrachloride-induced hepatotoxicity in rats.” Oriental Pharmacy and Experimental Medicine 15 (2015): 123- 134.
Singh, Satyajit, Mohan Paul Singh Ishar, Ajit Kumar Saxena, and Arvinder Kaur. “Cytotoxic effect of Anthocephalus cadamba Miq. leaves on human cancer cell lines.” Pharmacognosy Journal 5, no. 3 (2013): 127-129.
Ali, Shoket, Sharmeen Ishteyaque, Foziya Khan, Pragati Singh, Abhishek Soni, and Madhav N. Mugale. “Accelerative wound-healing effect of aqueous anthocephalus cadamba leaf extract in a diabetic rat model.” The International Journal of Lower Extremity Wounds 22, no. 2 (2023): 409- 417.
Acharyya, Suman, Ranjan Padhy, and Santosh Kumar Dash. “Pharmacognostic Studies on the Root of Anthocephalus cadamba (Roxb.) Miq.” Pharmacognosy Journal 10, no. 5 (2018).
Dolai, Narayan, Indrajit Karmakar, RB Suresh Kumar, Biswakanth Kar, Asis Bala, and Pallab Kanti Haldar. “Evaluation of antitumor activity and in vivo antioxidant status of Anthocephalus cadamba on Ehrlich ascites carcinoma treated mice.” Journal of Ethnopharmacology 142, no. 3 (2012): 865- 870.
Saisruthi, Kaveripakam, and Adikay Sreedevi. “Amelioration of cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity by roots of Anthocephalus Cadamba.” Biomedical and Pharmacology Journal 10, no. 3 (2017): 1433- 1439.
Alam, M. Ashraful, Raushanara Akter, Nusrat Subhan, M. Mostafizur Rahman, Muntasir M. Majumder, Lutfun Nahar, and Satyajit D. Sarker. “Antidiarrhoeal property of the hydroethanolic extract of the flowering tops of Anthocephalus cadamba.” Revista Brasileira de Farmacognosia 18 (2008): 155- 159.
Murthuza, Syed, and B. K. Manjunatha. “In vitro and in vivo evaluation of anti-inflammatory potency of Mesua ferrea, Saraca asoca, Viscum album & Anthocephalus cadamba in murine macrophages raw 264. 7 cell lines and Wistar albino rats.” Beni-Suef University Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences 7, no. 4 (2018): 719- 723.
Islam, Tairin, Abhijit Das, Kumar Bishawjit Shill, Palash Karmakar, Shafiul Islam, and Mohammad Mafruhi Sattar. “Evaluation of membrane stabilizing, anthelmintic, antioxidant activity with phytochemical screening of methanolic extract of Neolamarckia cadamba fruits.” Journal of Medicinal Plants Research 9, no. 5 (2015): 151-158.
SHAIKH, AJAM C., AMIT GUPTA, and SUSHAMA R. CHAPHALKAR. “STRUCTURAL DIVERSITY IN MEDICINAL PLANTS: IDENTIFICATION AND QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS OF SECONDARY METABOLITES USING HIGH-PERFORMANCE THIN LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY AND LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY MASS SPECTROMETRY FOR DETERMINING ITS ANTIINFLAMMATORY ACTIVITY.”

Suggestive Reading Regarding Mitragyna parviflora

Ahmad, Islamudin, Wisnu Cahyo Prabowo, Muhammad Arifuddin, Jaka Fadraersada, Niken Indriyanti, Herman Herman, Reza Yuridian Purwoko, et al. “Mitragyna species as pharmacological agents: From abuse to promising pharmaceutical products.” Life 12, no. 2 (2022): 193.
Brown, Paula N., Jensen A. Lund, and Susan J. Murch. “A botanical, phytochemical and ethnomedicinal review of the genus Mitragyna korth: Implications for products sold as kratom.” Journal of Ethnopharmacology 202 (2017): 302- 325.
Nagakannan, Pandian, Basavaraj D. Shivasharan, Veeresh P. Veerapur, and Boreddy S. Thippeswamy. “Sedative and antiepileptic effects of Anthocephalus cadamba Roxb. in mice and rats.” Indian Journal of Pharmacology 43, no. 6 (2011): 699- 702.
Ahmad, I., Prabowo, W. C., Arifuddin, M., Fadraersada, J., Indriyanti, N., Herman, H., Purwoko, R. Y., Nainu, F., Rahmadi, A., Paramita, S., Kuncoro, H., Mita, N., Narsa, A. C., Prasetya, F., Ibrahim, A., Rijai, L., & Alam, G. (2022). Mitragyna Species as Pharmacological Agents: From Abuse to Promising Pharmaceutical Products. Life, 12(2). https:// doi. org/ 10. 3390/ life- 12020193.
Ahmad I, Prabowo WC, Arifuddin M, Fadraersada J, Indriyanti N, Herman H, Purwoko RY, Nainu F, Rahmadi A, Paramita S, Kuncoro H, Mita N, Narsa AC, Prasetya F, Ibrahim A, Rijai L, Alam G, Mun’im A, Dej- Adisai S. Mitragyna Species as Pharmacological Agents: From Abuse to Promising Pharmaceutical Products. Life (Basel). 2022 Jan 27; 12 (2): 193. Doi: 10. 3390/ life- 12020193. PMID: 35207481; PMCID: PMC- 8878704.
Todd, D. A., Kellogg, J. J., Wallace, E. D., Khin, M., Flores-Bocanegra, L., Tanna, R. S., McIntosh, S., Raja, H. A., Graf, T. N., Hemby, S. E., Paine, M. F., Oberlies, N. H., & Cech, N. B. (2020). Chemical composition and biological effects of kratom (Mitragyna speciosa): In vitro studies with implications for efficacy and drug interactions. Scientific Reports, 10. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1038/ s41598- 020- 76119- w.
Ghazalli MN, Md Sah MS, Mat M, Awang K, Jaafar MA, Mirad R, Zaini AZ, Nordin ARM, Rusli NM, Mohamad SS, Dalee ASM. Leaf Anatomy and Micromorphology Characteristics of Ketum [Mitragyna speciosa (Korth.) Havil.] (Rubiaceae). Trop Life Sci Res. 2021 Mar; 32 (1): 107- 117. doi: 10. 21315/ tlsr2021. 32. 1. 7. Epub 2021 Mar 31. PMID: 33936554; PMCID: PMC- 8054664.
Veeramohan R, Zamani AI, Azizan KA, Goh HH, Aizat WM, Razak MFA, Yusof NSM, Mansor SM, Baharum SN, Ng CL. Comparative metabolomics analysis reveals alkaloid repertoires in young and mature Mitragyna speciosa (Korth.) Havil. Leaves. PLoS One. 2023 Mar 21; 18 (3): e0283147. doi: 10. 1371/ journal. Pone. 0283147. PMID: 36943850; PMCID: PMC- 10030037.
Bhardwaj M, Bharadwaj L, Trigunayat K, Trigunayat MM. Insecticidal and homicidal plants from the Aravalli hill range of India. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011 Jun 14; 136 (1): 103- 10. Doi: 10. 1016/ j. jep. 2011. 04. 013. Epub 2011 Apr 19. PMID: 2152- 7336.
Félix-Silva J, Silva-Junior AA, Zucolotto SM, Fernandes-Pedrosa MF. Medicinal Plants for the Treatment of Local Tissue Damage Induced by Snake Venoms: An Overview from Traditional Use to Pharmacological Evidence. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2017; 2017: 5748256. doi: 10. 1155/ 2017/ 5748256. Epub 2017 Aug 21. PMID: 28904556; PMCID: PMC- 5585606.
Mickymaray S. Efficacy and Mechanism of Traditional Medicinal Plants and Bioactive Compounds against Clinically Important Pathogens. Antibiotics (Basel). 2019 Dec 9; 8 (4): 257. doi: 10. 3390/ antibiotics- 8040257. PMID: 31835403; PMCID: PMC- 6963422.
DeFilipps RA, Krupnick GA. The medicinal plants of Myanmar. PhytoKeys. 2018 Jun 28; (102): 1- 341. doi: 10. 3897/ phytokeys. 102. 24380. PMID: 30002597; PMCID: PMC- 6033956.
León F, Habib E, Adkins JE, Furr EB, McCurdy CR, Cutler SJ. Phytochemical characterization of the leaves of Mitragyna speciosa grown in the U.S.A. Nat Prod Commun. 2009 Jul; 4 (7): 907- 10. PMID: 19731590; PMCID: PMC9255435.
Kaushik, Dhruv & Khokra, Sukhbir & A., Saneja & Kaushik, Pawan & Sharma, Chetan & K.R., Aneja. (2009). A Study of Analgesic and Antimicrobial Potential of Mitragyna Parvifolia. International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Drug Research. 1. 6- 8. 10. 25004/ vIJPSDR. 2009. 010102. The present study was designed to evaluate the analgesic and antimicrobial activities of ethanolic extract from leaves of the Mitragyna parvifolia plant (Rubiaceae) family. The analgesic activity was carried out on Swiss albino male mice by Eddy’s hot plate and Acetic acid-induced writhing test. The extract showed only moderate analgesic potential in the acetic acid-induced writhing test at all the test doses while the extract at the dose of 500 mg/ kg (P less than 0.01) showed strong analgesic activity comparable to the standard drug Diclofenac sodium (50 mg/ Kg, i.p.) in hot plate method. The extract in different concentrations was also tested for antibacterial activity using the agar well diffusion method. The extract significantly inhibited S. aureus and showed some degree of inhibition against P. aeruginosa and E. coli.
Ahmad, I., Prabowo, W. C., Arifuddin, M., Fadraersada, J., Indriyanti, N., Herman, H., Purwoko, R. Y., Nainu, F., Rahmadi, A., Paramita, S., Kuncoro, H., Mita, N., Narsa, A. C., Prasetya, F., Ibrahim, A., Rijai, L., & Alam, G. (2022). Mitragyna Species as Pharmacological Agents: From Abuse to Promising Pharmaceutical Products. Life, 12(2), 193. https:// doi. org/ 10. 3390/ life- 12020193.
Sengnon, N., Vonghirundecha, P., Chaichan, W., Juengwatanatrakul, T., Onthong, J., Kitprasong, P., Sriwiriyajan, S., Chittrakarn, S., Limsuwanchote, S., & Wungsintaweekul, J. (2022). Seasonal and Geographic Variation in Alkaloid Content of Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa (Korth.) Havil.) from Thailand. Plants, 12(4), 949. https:// doi. org/ 10. 3390/ plants- 12040949.
Ramanathan, S., Parthasarathy, S., Murugaiyah, V., Magosso, E., Tan, S. C., & Mansor, S. M. (2015). Understanding the Physicochemical Properties of Mitragynine, a Principal Alkaloid of Mitragyna speciosa, for Preclinical Evaluation. Molecules, 20 (3), 4915- 4927. https:// doi. org/ 10. 3390/ molecules- 20034915.
Ahmad, Islamudin & Prabowo, Wisnu & Arifuddin, Muhammad & Fadraersada, Jaka & Indriyanti, Niken & Herman, Herman & Purwoko, Reza & Nainu, Firzan & Rahmadi, Anton & Paramita, Swandari & Kuncoro, Hadi & Mita, Nur & Narsa, Angga & Prasetya, Fajar & Ibrahim, Arsyik & Rijai, Laode & Alam, Gemini & Mun’im, Abdul & Dej-adisai, Sukanya. (2022). Mitragyna Species as Pharmacological Agents: From Abuse to Promising Pharmaceutical Products. Mitragyna is a genus belonging to the Rubiaceae family and is a plant endemic to Asia and Africa. Traditionally, the plants of this genus were used by local people to treat some diseases from generation to generation. Mitragyna speciosa (Korth.) Havil. Is a controversial plant from this genus, known under the trading name “kratom”, and contains more than 40 different types of alkaloids. Mitragynine and 7-hydroxy mitragynine have agonist morphine-like effects on opioid receptors. Globally, Mitragyna plants have high economic value. However, regulations regarding the circulation and use of these commodities vary in several countries around the world. This review article aims to comprehensively examine Mitragyna plants (mainly M. speciosa) as potential pharmacological agents by looking at various aspects of the plants. A literature search was performed, and information was collected using electronic databases including Scopus, ScienceDirect, PubMed, directory open access journal (DOAJ), and Google Scholar from early 2020 to mid-2021. This narrative review highlights some aspects of this genus, including historical background and botanical origins, habitat, cultivation, its use in traditional medicine, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicity, abuse and addiction, legal issues, and the potential of Mitragyna species as pharmaceutical products.
Oliveira, R. (2022). Bark Extract of Uncaria tomentosa L. For the Control of Strawberry Phytopathogens. Horticulturae, 8 (8), 672. https:// doi. org/ 10. 3390/ horticulturae- 8080672.
Moraes RM, Cerdeira AL, Lourenço MV. Using Micropropagation to Develop Medicinal Plants into Crops. Molecules. 2021 Mar 21; 26 (6): 1752. doi: 10. 3390/ molecules- 26061752. PMID: 33800970; PMCID: PMC8003982.
Odukoya JO, Odukoya JO, Mmutlane EM, Ndinteh DT. Ethnopharmacological Study of Medicinal Plants Used for the Treatment of Cardiovascular Diseases and Their Associated Risk Factors in Sub-Saharan Africa. Plants (Basel). 2022 May 23; 11 (10): 1387. doi: 10. 3390/ plants 11101387. PMID: 35631812; PMCID: PMC 9143319.
Leong Bin Abdullah MFI, Singh D. The Adverse Cardiovascular Effects and Cardiotoxicity of Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa Korth.): A Comprehensive Review. Front Pharmacol. 2021 Sep 27; 12: 726003. Doi: 10. 3389/ fphar. 2021. 726003. PMID: 34646135; PMCID: PMC 8504575.
Shellard EJ, Phillipson JD, Gupta D. The Mitragyna species of Asia. 13. The alkaloids of the leaves of Mitragyna parvifolia (Roxb.) Korth. Obtained from India. Planta Med. 1968 Dec;16 (4): 436- 45. Doi: 10. 1055/ s- 0028-1099932. PMID: 5734383.
Gonçalves J, Luís Â, Gallardo E, Duarte AP. Psychoactive Substances of Natural Origin: Toxicological Aspects, Therapeutic Properties and Analysis in Biological Samples. Molecules. 2021 Mar 5; 26 (5): 1397. doi: 10. 3390/ molecules- 26051397. PMID: 33807728; PMCID: PMC- 7961374.
Panda SK, Mohanta YK, Padhi L, Park YH, Mohanta TK, Bae H. Large Scale Screening of Ethnomedicinal Plants for Identification of Potential Antibacterial Compounds. Molecules. 2016 Mar 14; 21 (3): 293. doi: 10. 3390/ molecules/ 21030293. Erratum in: Molecules. 2020 Apr 20; 25 (8): E1897. doi: 10. 3390/ molecules/ 25081897. PMID: 26985889; PMCID: PMC- 6274442.

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Ayurveda is an Indian system of medicine that is popular since ancient times. Dr. Gupta’s IAFA® has been conducting research studies to find out different phytoconstituents of herbs and their action in the body. Such knowledge acquired by our experts is used in the preparation of medicines and providing the treatment facilities safely and effectively. IAFA® is the provider of safe and effective treatment for a wide range of diseases, mainly allergic diseases all based on Ayurveda.

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Dr. Sahil Gupta completed his Bachelor of Ayurveda in Medicine and Surgery (B.A.M.S.) and Master’s Degree in Health Administration (MHA) India. He is Registered Ayurvedic Doctor & Vaidya in India having Registration No. 23780. He is the CEO and founder of IAFA. After completing BAMS, Dr. Sahil Gupta started practicing Ayruveda by giving prime importance to allergic disorders management. He became the first Ayurvedic doctor to cure Food Allergies through Ayurveda. Read More About Dr. Sahil Gupta.

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